Male Swimmers Research Articles

The Impact of Normobaric Hypoxia and Intermittent Hypoxic Training on Cardiac Biomarkers in Endurance Athletes: A Pilot Study.

This study explores the effects of normobaric hypoxia and intermittent hypoxic training (IHT) on the physiological condition of the cardiac muscle in swimmers. Hypoxia has been reported to elicit both beneficial and adverse changes in the cardiovascular system, but its impact on the myocardium during acute exercise and altitude/hypoxic training remains less understood. We aimed to determine how a single bout of intense interval exercise and a four-week period of high-intensity endurance training under normobaric hypoxia affect cardiac marker activity in swimmers. Sixteen young male swimmers were divided into two groups: one undergoing training in hypoxia and the other in normoxia. Cardiac markers, including troponin I and T (cTnI and cTnT), heart-type fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP), creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme (CK-MB), and myoglobin (Mb), were analyzed to assess the myocardium's response. We found no significant differences in the physiological response of the cardiac muscle to intense physical exertion between hypoxia and normoxia. Four weeks of IHT did not alter the resting levels of cTnT, cTnI, and H-FABP, but it resulted in a noteworthy decrease in the resting concentration of CK-MB, suggesting enhanced cardiac muscle adaptation to exercise. In contrast, a reduction in resting Mb levels was observed in the control group training in normoxia. These findings suggest that IHT at moderate altitudes does not adversely affect cardiac muscle condition and may support cardiac muscle adaptation, affirming the safety and efficacy of IHT as a training method for athletes.

Dryland Performance Tests Are Not Good Predictors of World Aquatics Points in Elite Male and Female Swimmers.

Background: Swim performance can be reliant on strength and power. Standardisation of swim performance in different events, distances, and sexes can be completed using World Aquatics points, allowing for ranking of swimmers. The aim of this retrospective cross-sectional study was to assess whether relationships between World Aquatics points and dryland markers of performance existed in male and female elite swimmers separately and combined. Methods: Dryland tests included Optojump® photoelectric cell countermovement jump, countermovement jump reach with a Vertec® system, standing broad jump using a tape measure, repetition maximum testing in the barbell back squat, barbell deadlift, and barbell bench press. Swim performance data and dryland test data on elite male (n = 38) and female (n = 20) Scottish swimmers from 2009-2017 were collected. Swim performance data were converted to World Aquatics federation points, and Bayesian linear regression analyses examined relationships between World Aquatics points and dryland performance tests: countermovement jump height (cm) using an Optojump® photoelectric cells system, countermovement jump height (cm) using a Vertec® device, standing broad jump distance (cm), relative strength (load lifted (kg) per kg of body mass) in the barbell bench press (kg/kg), barbell back squat (kg/kg), barbell deadlift (kg/kg). Results: The Bayesian estimates of change of World Aquatics points for a unit change in jump-based measures were: Optojump®-men = 0.6, women = 0.6, combined = 0.4; Vertec®-men = 4.3, women = -1.6, combined = 2.4; standing broad jump-men = 0, women = 0, combined = 0.4. Strength-based measures were: barbell back squat-men = 2.3, women = 22, combined = -2.5; barbell deadlift-men = -5; barbell bench press-men = 41.8. Conclusions: Dryland performance tests are not good predictors of World Aquatics points and should rather be used for assessing training quality and monitoring injury risks.

Inter-limb differences in upper quarter mobility/stability are not associated with performance in competitive swimmers.

The Y Balance Test-Upper Quarter (YBT-UQ) is a cost-effective, well-established, closed kinetic chain test to assess inter-limb asymmetries in the upper quarter that could negatively affect swimming performance. Thus, the aim of the present study was to determine YBT-UQ performances and inter-limb differences as well as its association with swimming performance in athletes with diverging levels of expertise. Forty female and male competitive swimmers (age range: 10-22 years) with different expertise levels (A-squad: n = 9, B-squad: n = 12, C-squad: n = 19) were tested (reach distances for the YBT-UQ) and swimming performance was calculated using the ratio of individual to world best time. YBT-UQ performances (i.e., inferolateral reach direction for the dominant arm: p = .027, ηp2 = .12 and the non-dominant arm: p = .031, ηp2 = .17) but not YBT-UQ inter-limb differences significantly differed between groups and were largest in swimmers with the lowest expertise level (i.e., C-squad). Further, YBT-UQ performances (i.e., inferolateral reach direction [r = -.68 to -.70, both p < .05] and composite score [r = -.65 to -.67, both p < .05] for both arms and medial reach direction for the non-dominant arm [r = -.64, p < .05]) but not inter-limb differences were significantly and negatively correlated with swimming performance among B-squad swimmers. Our results suggest that inter-limb differences in upper quarter mobility/stability are not influenced by the level of expertise and have no significant associations with swimming performance. However, greater reach distances were correlated with lower swimming performance for the B-squad swimmers indicating that a training-related increase in upper quarter mobility/stability could worsen swimming performance in those athletes.

Sleep Patterns During Pre-Competition Training Phase: A Comparison Between Male and Female Collegiate Swimmers.

While there is a rising focus on sleep issues among athletes, a notable gap exists in the comparative analysis of sleep patterns between male and female athletes. This study aims to evaluate the sleep patterns of collegiate swimmers during a specific period (pre-competition training phase) based on the National Sleep Foundation's recommendations and compares sleep differences between males and females. 15 swimmers (6 males and 9 females) completed the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) and wore actigraphy devices for 8 consecutive nights to record objective sleep patterns including bedtime, wake time, sleep onset latency, total sleep time, wake after sleep onset, and sleep efficiency. The total sleep time of collegiate male (5.0±0.4 h, 4.6 to 5.4h) and female (6.0±0.7 h, 5.5 to 6.5h) swimmers was less than 7 hours per night, and male swimmers' sleep efficiency (76.7±8.9%, 67.4 to 86.0%) was lower than the 85% standard. Male swimmers had less objectively measured sleep duration (p=0.006, d=1.66, large effect), lower sleep efficiency (p=0.013, d=1.51, large effect), and longer wake after sleep onset (p=0.096, d=0.94, moderate effect). Female swimmers had higher sleep difficulty scores (p=0.06, d=1.08, moderate effect), and there was a significant difference in the distribution of sleep difficulty scores between male and female swimmers (p=0.033, V=0.045, small effect). Collegiate swimmers exhibited poor sleep patterns during pre-competition preparation, and the sleep fragmentation of male swimmers was more pronounced. There were sex differences in both subjective and objective measured sleep patterns, with male swimmers having less sleep and low efficiency, while female swimmers experienced more significant sleep disturbances.

Response to "Sleep Patterns During Pre-Competition Training Phase: A Comparison Between Male and Female Collegiate Swimmers" [Letter

Response to "Sleep Patterns During Pre-Competition Training Phase: A Comparison Between Male and Female Collegiate Swimmers" [Letter

COVID-19 기간 전·후에 따른 수영 선수의 폐활량과 무산소성 운동능력 및 체력의 비교 분석

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate lung capacity, anaerobic exercise capacity, and fitness in high school swimmers before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: This study was conducted on 30 male high school swimmers and evaluated lung capacity, anaerobic exercise capacity, and fitness before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The study analyzed measurement variables obtained from the group through IBM SPSS Statistics version 22.0, and an independent sample t-test was used to compare and analyze the lung capacity, anaerobic exercise capacity, and fitness of swimmers before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Results: Statistically significant differences in back strength, sit-up, repeated jumps, whole-body reaction, and trunk forward flexion were found between the groups before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The evaluation of the lung capacity and anaerobic exercise capacity of swimmers before and after COVID-19 pandemic did not find statistically significant difference between the groups. Conclusion: This study showed significant differences by group and will provide guidance on the development of a systematic training program for swimmers.

The Effect of Selected Aquatic Training on Serum Levels of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 and Mmyostatin in Middle-aged Male Swimmers

Background and Objectives Sarcopenia is one of the important and prevalent disorders that occurs with age and is associated with a significant reduction in muscle strength and volume. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of selected aquatic training on serum levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 and myostatin in middle-aged male swimmers. Subjects and Methods Twenty-two men meeting the inclusion criteria were recruited and randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 11) or the control group (n = 11). The training program followed a progressive overload structure, employing three sessions per week with escalating difficulty and intensity. This design aligns with the principle of overload, which posits that gradually increasing training demands leads to adaptation and improvement. Plasma levels of IGF-1 and myostatin were measured (before and 48 hours after the protocol). The data were analyzed using the statistical test of covariance (ANCOVA) at a significance level of P&lt;0.05. Results The intragroup evaluation of the data showed that there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group in IGF-1 and myostatin variables (P&lt;0.05). The results of ANCOVA indicated that the selected aquatic training led to a significant increase in plasma levels of IGF-1 (P&lt;0.05) and a significant decrease in myostatin (P&lt;0.05) in the experimental group compared to the control group. Conclusion According to the results of this research, eight weeks of selected aquatic training changed the resting levels of factors related to muscular atrophy in middle-aged male swimmers. For this reason, this type of exercise can be effective in muscle rehabilitation and improving the physical fitness of these people. However, further investigations seem necessary.

Impact of variations in swimming velocity on wake flow dynamics in human underwater undulatory swimming

Increasing the velocity of the lower-limb movement is crucial for improving underwater undulatory swimming (UUS) velocity. However, the underlying mechanism of how these movements influence swimming velocity have remained unclear. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between changes in swimming movement and the resulting changes in flow field as a result of changes in test flow velocity (U) in a water flume. A male student swimmer was tested with the following three U settings 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 m/s. The lower-limb movements and wake flow behind the swimmer were compared. A motion capture system was employed for motion analysis, and a stereo PIV for visualizing the flow field. The findings revealed that, as U increased, the velocity vectors of the flow field in all directions (u, v, w) increased, as did the toe velocity. It was also suggested that with increasing U, the outward change in the toe velocity vector down-kick and the inward change in the toe velocity vector up-kick may have a positive effect on the vortices, contributing to an increase in the velocity vectors in the flow field. Furthermore, the high U, vortex re-capturing occurred during the transition from down-kick to up-kick, indicating that this might contribute to increased momentum. This suggests that the transition from the down-kick to the up-kick is necessary for gaining greater momentum. Notably, this study is the first to identify the factors that increase the swimming velocity of the UUS in the context of movement and flow field.

Comprehensive Study on Musculoskeletal Injuries among Swimmers in Jordan: Causes, Effects, and Prevention Strategies

No prior investigations have evaluated the musculoskeletal (MSK) injuries characteristic of swimming sport in Jordan. This study aimed to identify the most common sports injuries among male and female swimmers in Jordan. Through a survey distributed to the Jordanian Swimming Federation’s registered swimmers, 173 participants (72 female, 101 male) aged 18 to 25 completed the questionnaire. The results of the study showed that the most common injuries were arranged as follows: muscle spasms, muscle cramps, and sprains; 29.8%, 28.6%, and 17.7%, respectively. The most vulnerable areas were the Shoulder 35.3%, followed by the back 14.4 %, the knee 10.7%, and the neck 10.2%. The most common cause of injuries was Inadequate warm-up, where his percentage reached 34%, followed by Overtraining with a percentage of 27%. Reduced training intensity or frequency, impaired stroke technique, limited range of motion or flexibility, and required complete cessation of swimming had the main effectiveness of the swimming performance and training, where the percent was 34.9%, 20.8%,10.3%, and 4.3%, respectively.

Variation vs. specialization: the dose-time-effect of technical and physiological variety in the development of elite swimmers

ObjectiveIt is heavily discussed whether larger variety or specialization benefit elite performance at peak age. Therefore, this study aimed to determine technical (number of different swimming strokes) and physiological (number of different race distances) variety required to become an international-class swimmer (> 750 swimming points) based on 1′522′803 race results.ResultsCorrelation analyses showed lower technical variety in higher ranked swimmers (P < 0.001), yet with small effects (0.11–0.30). However, Poisson distribution revealed dose-time-effects and specified number of swimming strokes required during each age group. Specifically, freestyle swimmers showed highest chances when starting to compete in three to four swimming strokes but reduced their variety to three swimming strokes at the ages of 12/13yrs with another transition to two swimming strokes at the ages of 19/21yrs (female/male swimmers, respectively). Although both sexes showed similar specialization pattern throughout their career, earlier specialization was generally evident in female compared to male swimmers. At peak performance age, freestyle was most frequently combined with butterfly. Swimmers who either kept competing in all five swimming strokes or focused on only one at the beginning of their careers showed lowest probability of becoming an international-class swimmer. Physiological variety increased during junior age but declined again to three race distances towards elite age.

Prevalence of sunscreen use and sunburn in Greek athletes: a cross-sectional study.

Athletes participating in outdoor sports are in a high-risk category for prolonged sun exposure. This study investigates whether swimmers and beach volleyball athletes adopt appropriate measures to protect their skin from the sun. Sunscreens play a key role in protecting the skin from solar radiation and preventing premature aging. The study assesses the frequency of sunscreen use and the incidence of sunburn among athletes. Athletes completed a self-administered questionnaire regarding their sun protection and exposure habits. Participants aged 9 to 60 years, engaged in swimming (N.=1047) and beach volleyball (N.=785), were included in this study. In the group of swimmers (N.=858), a notable percentage never used sunscreen, and among those who did, (N.=137), natural products were predominantly applied. Gender differences revealed a significantly higher sunscreen usage (P<0.001) among female swimmers compared to males. Among beach volleyball athletes, sunscreen use was notably higher (90%), with 55.6% applying natural sunscreen and 44.4% opting for non-natural alternatives. Regarding the incidence of sunburn, the occurrence among both male and female swimmers was observed to be very low. Among those with sunburn, females exhibited a significantly higher frequency than males (P<0.001). Conversely, in beach volleyball athletes, sunburn affected a higher percentage of males (49.8%) than females (43.9%). Sunscreen utilization is notably insufficient among athletes, reflecting a limited awareness of the potential risks associated with sun exposure, even though they frequently suffer from sunburn. This heightened susceptibility places them at an increased risk of developing skin lesions. Initiating and disseminating awareness campaigns that specifically emphasize the importance of sunscreen use within the outdoor sports community is imperative.

Lower and upper extremity contributions to propulsion and resistance during semi-tethered load-velocity profiling in front crawl swimming

ABSTRACT The study estimated lower and upper extremity contributions to whole-body front crawl swimming using semi-tethered load-velocity profiling. Nine female and 11 male (inter)national-level swimmers performed 20 m semi-tethered sprints, each with five progressive loads for lower (leg kicking), upper (arm stroke), and whole-body front crawl movements. The theoretical maximal speed (v0) and load (L0), and active drag (Da) were expressed as a percentage of the sum of both extremities for the movements of each extremity to calculate their contributions. The difference of whole-body values minus the sum of both extremities was used to estimate whole-body reserves. Lower (upper) body contributions were 43.8 ± 2.8% (56.2%) for v0, 37.3 ± 7.1% (62.7%) for L0, and 39.6 ± 5.6% (60.4%) for Da. Statistically significant whole-body reserves were found for v0 (−30.9 ± 3.9%, p < 0.001) and Da (−5.7 ± 11.7%, p = 0.04). V0 reserves correlated very highly with whole-body v0 in males (r = 0.71, p = 0.014) and moderately in females (r = 0.47, p = 0.21). The lower extremities contribute substantially to front crawl load-velocity profiles of highly trained swimmers. Higher sprint swimming speeds are associated with an efficient speed transfer from lower- and upper- to whole-body movement.

Psychological typification and reaction of the cardiovascular system of endurance athletes to multisensory interference. Part 2: the relationship between the psychological characteristics of a successful athlete and the response of heart rate to stressors

The search for methods of profiling and selecting athletes in order to preserve health and improve performance is one of the most important tasks of scientific and methodological support for sports training. The purpose of the study is to assess the possibility of determining the psychophysiological types of athletes when testing for resistance to multisensory interference. These data can later be used in combined psychophysiological methods of sports selection. The aim of the study is to find out whether certain psychological types of athletes may have characteristic physiological features of reactions to hypoxia, as well as to assess the applicability of the methods used. 28 cyclical sports athletes — male skiers and swimmers from 13 to 26 years old (Q1 (25 %) 18,2; median (50 %) 19,0; Q3 (75 %) 20,7) of various levels of athletic qualification were examined. A test was performed with normobaric 10 % hypoxia with an analysis of heart rate variability (HRV). Revealed: 1. differences in HRV profiles at rest and at the beginning of the hypoxic test in athletes of different sports qualifications, 2. certain combinations of personality traits of masters of cyclic sports correspond to characteristic HRV profiles. This study shows that the skill level of an athlete is reflected in the response to multisensory interference and the chosen research methods are adequate for the set goals. The limitations of this pilot study include the sample size, as well as the fact that only males participated in it. In the future, the authors plan to increase the sample depending on the size of the effect (at least 125 volunteers) to obtain more reliable data and qualitative conclusions.

Hand Anthropometry of Italian Elite Male Swimmers

Hand Anthropometry of Italian Elite Male Swimmers

Specialize Early and Select Late: Performance Trajectories of World-Class Finalists and International- and National-Class Swimmers.

To investigate performance progression from early-junior to peak performance age and compare variety in race distances and swimming strokes between swimmers of various performance levels. Using a longitudinal data analysis and between-groups comparisons 306,165 annual best times of male swimmers (N = 3897) were used to establish a ranking based on annual best times at peak performance age. Individual performance trajectories were retrospectively analyzed to compare distance and stroke variety. Performances of world-class finalistsand international- and national-class swimmers (swimming points: 886 [30], 793 [28], and 698 [28], respectively) were compared across 5 age groups-13-14, 15-16, 17-18, 19-20, and 21+years-using a 2-way analysis of variance with repeated measures. World-class finalists are not significantly faster than international-class swimmers up to the 17- to 18-year age group (F2|774 = 65, P < .001, ηp2=.14) but specialize in short- or long-distance races at a younger age. World-class breaststroke finalists show faster breaststroke times compared to their performance in other swimming strokes from an early age (P < .05), while world-class freestyle and individual medley finalists show less significant differences to their performance in other swimming strokes. While federation officials should aim for late talent selection, that is, not before the 17- to 18-year age group, coaches should aim to identify swimmers' preferred race distances early on. However, the required stroke variety seems to be specific for each swimming stroke. Breaststroke swimmers could aim for early and strong specialization, while freestyle and individual medley swimmers could maintain large and very large stroke variety, respectively.

Optimizing performance and mood state in competitive swimmers through tapering strategies.

Tapering is a concept that is of great importance in relation to performance, due of its great effect on the psychological and physical condition of the swimmer. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the effect of two-week of tapering characterized by a progressive training volume reduction on mood state and swimming performance in competitive swimmers. Twenty-four competitive male swimmers were randomly assigned into two groups. Experimental group (age = 16.9 ± 0.5 years) and control group (16.1 ± 0.4 years). The mood subscales (tension, depression, anger, fatigue, confusion and vigor), total mood disturbance and swimming performance (50-m front crawl) were measured in pre and posttest. Our findings revealed a significant improvement in mood subscales (20.8 to 47.8%), total mood disturbance (14.4%) and in swimming performance (3.5%) after 2 weeks of tapering training. A significant correlation was observed between the total mood disturbance and the 50 m front crawl (r = -0.63) only in the experimental group. It was concluded that a progressive reduction in training volume with a maintain of intensity could improve mood state and swimming performance. In addition, a change in total mood disturbance could affect swimming performance. Swimming coaches are advised to include tapering period according to the standards we mentioned earlier before competitive swimming to improve mental state, which helps the swimmers to overcome the negative influences of overtraining and therefore they can promote sprint-swimming performance.

Role of kicking action in front crawl: the inter-relationships between swimming velocity, hand propulsive force and trunk inclination.

This study aimed to investigate the essential role of the kicking action in front crawl. To achieve this objective, we examined the relationships of the hand propulsive force and trunk inclination with swimming velocity over a wide range of velocities from 0.75 m·s-1 to maximum effort, including the experimental conditions of arm stroke without a pull buoy. Seven male swimmers performed a 25 m front crawl at various speeds under three swimming conditions: arm stroke with a pull buoy, arm stroke without a pull buoy (AWOB) and arm stroke with a six-beat kick (SWIM). Swimming velocity, hand propulsive force and trunk inclination were calculated using an underwater motion-capture system and pressure sensors. Most notably, AWOB consistently exhibited greater values than SWIM for hand propulsive force across the range of observed velocities (p < 0.05) and for trunk inclination below the severe velocity (p < 0.05), and these differences increased with decreasing velocity. These results indicate that 1) the kicking action in front crawl has a positive effect on reducing the pressure drag acting on the trunk, thereby allowing swimmers to achieve a given velocity with less hand propulsive force, and 2) this phenomenon is significant in low-velocity ranges.

Kinematic analysis of the underwater glide phase during the push-off in competitive swimmers.

The aim of the study was to analyze the kinematic parameters of the push-off start during the underwater glide in competitive swimmers. 74 swimmers participating in the Spanish Championships were filmed and analyzed by DLT-2D photogrammetry after the push-off start in crawl, backstroke and butterfly. Between genders there were differences in distance and speed. Male swimmers covered greater distances (1.37±0.06 vs 1.20±0.05 m, η2 = 0.02, F = 3.85, p = 0.05) and were faster (2.36±0.03 and 2.08±0.03 m/s, η2 = 0.14, F = 36.14, p<0.001) than female swimmers. Between strokes there were greater differences in time (η2 = 0.06, F = 6.76, p = 0.00) and distance (η2 = 0.38, F = 67.08, p< 0.001), than in speed (η2 = 0.05, F = 5.63, p< 0.001). During the backstroke, less time (0.50±0.04 s) and distance (1.01±0.07 m) were used, being the slowest style (2.12±0.04 m/s). In butterfly, less time (0.63±0.04 s) and distance (2.25±0.04 m) were used, while crawl was the fastest (2.30±0.04 m/s). These results allow us to characterize the underwater glide phase and provide useful data for both competitive swimmers and coaches to improve performance.

Effect of intensity training block on anxiety state and performance in competitive swimmers.

An increase in training intensity could create changes in psychological and physiological variables in competitive athletes. For this reason, it is very relevant to know how an intensive training block could influence psychological variables in competitive swimmers. This study examined the effect of an intensive training block (HIT) for 2 weeks on the anxiety state and swimming performance compared to standard aerobic training. Twenty-two male competition swimmers were randomly assigned to two groups: HIT group (n = 11; age = 16.5 ± 0.29 years) and control group following the standard training program (n = 11; age = 16.1 ± 0.33 years). Psychological status variables (cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence) and swimming performance (100-m front crawl) were measured pre-and post-test. A significant effect of time was found for all psychological variables and swimming performance (F ≥ 17.6; p < 0.001; d ≥ 0.97). Furthermore, a significant group × time interaction effect was found in cognitive (F = 14.9; p < 0.001; d = 0.62) and somatic anxiety (F = 5.37; p = 0.031; d = 0.55) were found. Only a significant group effect was found in somatic anxiety (F = 27.1; p < 0.001; d = 1.2). Post hoc comparison revealed that both groups increased their cognitive anxiety and swimming performance, and decreased their self-confidence from pre to post test. However, cognitive anxiety increase significantly more in the HIT group compared to the control group. Furthermore, only the HIT training group significantly increased somatic anxiety over time, while somatic anxiety did not change significantly over time in the control group. Our findings indicated that a sudden increase in training intensity increased state anxiety more than standard training, but both conditions similarly enhanced swimming performance. Although the current level of psychological state is not affecting swimming performance negatively over this period, it should be regularly monitored by psychologists as it over a longer training period perhaps could have a negative influence on swimming performance.

Physiological Responses of Male and Female Swimmers in Different Warm-Up Protocols

Physiological Responses of Male and Female Swimmers in Different Warm-Up Protocols