Major Source Of Water Supply Research Articles

APPLICATION OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESISTIVITY PARAMETERS IN EVALUATING AQUIFER POTENTIAL AND VULNERABILITY WITHIN KABBA, NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA

The study area depends on groundwater as a major source of potable and healthy water supply. However, its occurrence and quality vary with low yield or abortive borehole drilled in some part. Therefore, there is need to properly investigate the geology and groundwater condition of the area using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and Dar Zarrouk parameters. The different rock types identified are migmatite-gneiss, granite-gneiss, schist, and charnockite. Forty (40) VES was carried out which revealed five to four geo-electric layers. These are top soil, lateritic clay, confining weathered basement, weathered/fractured basement aquifers and fresh basement. The types of curves identified are HA and KQ. The average depth to groundwater is 55.00m, this indicate that borehole should be drilled within or above the average depth to avoid later drying of wells. The value of aquifer resistivity and thickness was used to calculate longitudinal conductance, transverse resistance, hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity. The longitudinal conductance varies from poor to good in protective capacity class and revealed that the groundwater is easily exposed to contamination. The aquifer resistivity, thickness with transverse resistance, hydraulic conductivity, and transmissivity were used to classified the groundwater into different zones. The groundwater potential within the study area varies from low to very good with most of the area having moderate potential zones distributed mainly within the migmatite gneiss and the schist. The study area has fractures that can produce water for domestic, agricultural and industrial purpose and the result can be used for proper management of groundwater resources.

Analysis of the physical chemistry of domestic water supply sources in choba, Port Harcourt, rivers state

Water are used for several important purposes but the most essential use considered on the basis of social and economic significance as it relates to the health of the population is human consumption and sanitation. Man needs constant and accessible supply of water to provide necessary prerequisite for important physiological and biochemical processes. On account of the general contention that water is more basic than all other critical stuff to life and in its pure state is commended key to health. This study aimed at to examine the physical characteristics of the water supply sources in Choba as a crucial factor for development and upon which the quality of life depends. Thus, water samples were collected from borehole and well water sources being the only available major sources of water supply in Rumuokocha, Rumuchakara, Igbogo, Owhipa, Ndudor and Rumualoghu communities that make Choba and the parameters investigated include pH, Temperature, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) and Salinity. The results of the analyses for temperature was t= 0.751 and t= 0.547 both at p<0.05 for borehole and well water sources implying no significant difference from the allowable limit by WHO whereas for DO, pH, salinity, TDS and conductivity, t= -51.966; -24.027; -24.796, -19.546 ;2.321and t= -51.966; -24.027; -16.966, -20.024; 2.272 for borehole and well water sources respectively indicating a statistically significant difference between the parameters investigated and the allowable limits. Similarly, the ANOVA result shows F= 400.384; 23.262; 19.997; 8502.215at p<0.05 for parameters like temperature, salinity, TDS and conductivity of the available water sources do not vary significantly in the area. Therefore, constant monitoring and assessment of physical water quality parameters, water treatment and assessment of bacteriological content and other relevant water parameters to holistically ascertain it suitability for adequate human use were recommended.

Multidecadal analysis of Lake Garda water balance

Lake Garda, the largest in Italy, is a major source of water supply inserted in a trans-regional area, sustaining an ever-increasing variety of water interests since the XX century. We perform a multidecadal (1928-2020) water balance, estimating the long-term evolution of the input and output components under changing anthropogenic and climatic stressors. First, we present our hydrometeorological database, assembled through a consistent effort of collection and digitization of data from different sources. Then, we analyse the annual water balance, assessing the magnitude of the residual term, i.e. the unknown term that embeds uncertainties and potential sources of error, closing the water balance equation. Uncertainties are investigated by applying a multi-method analysis for over-lake evaporation and basin evapotranspiration. Land use evolution, contributions from the Mount Baldo area as well as the potential role of groundwater fluxes are additionally analysed. Eventually, we compute a sensitivity analysis to delineate the role of each component on the lake’s level and outflow variations. The long-term analysis allows for distinguishing some trends in the input and output components of the water balance. Differences emerge in the periods before and after the lake’s impoundment (1951), and some effects of climate modifications appear in the last decades. Precipitation over the basin has a major influence on the water availability within the basin, a result confirmed by the sensitivity analysis. The entity of the residual term, which represents the unaccounted contributions, calls into question the role of the groundwater fluxes and the time scale of the analysis. The multi-method analysis highlights the dependency of the different lake evaporation and basin evapotranspiration methods on the amount of data available.

Sustaining crop yield and water quality under climate change in intensively managed agricultural watersheds—the need for both adaptive and conservation measures

The projected near-future climate (2031–2059) of wetter springs and drier summers may negatively affect agricultural production in the US Midwest, mostly through reduced aeration of the root zone due to excess soil water and frequent loss of nutrients such as nitrate (NO3-N) and total phosphorus. Several agricultural adaptations—such as adding tile drains and increasing fertilizer rates—may be deployed to mitigate potential reductions in crop yield. However, these adaptations (generally driven by economic benefits) may have a severe impact on water quality, which is already under stress due to excess nutrient runoff from agricultural fields causing hypoxia in inland and coastal waters. Here, we evaluate the crop yield and water quality consequences of such adaptations under future climate with the Soil and Water Assessment Tool in a testbed watershed located in central Illinois. We show that additional tile drains and increased fertilizers can help achieve baseline (2003–2018) corn yields but with a nearly two-fold increase in riverine NO3-N yield affecting a major drinking water supply source. However, a shift to spring-only fertilizer application may not require additional fertilizer and reduces the increase in NO3-N loss to 1.25 times above the baseline. We also show that water quality may improve (better than baseline) with conservation measures such as cover crops and switchgrass. Our findings highlight the need to develop efficient climate change adaptation and conservation strategies for sustainable agriculture and water quality.

Factors and determinants of housing choices in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria

The study examined the factors and determinants of housing choices in Kaduna metropolis. Respondents were selected using purposive and simple random sampling techniques. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive techniques. Also, data for the research adopt the use of Key Informant Interview (KII), questionnaire and field observation. The result shows the various types of houses that includes 3 Bedrooms Detached (66.7%), 2 Bedroom Detached (11.4%), 3 Bedrooms Semi Detached (9.8%) as types of housing residence. Also, the findings revealed that aluminum roofing was the major roofing material used for the houses (48%). In addition, the major sources of water supply in the study area were borehole (72.4%). Also, the distance from house to school shows that half of the respondents covered almost less than 10km. The studies revealed that MPH estate was the major housing private partnership provider with 33.3% and preferred choice followed by Tripple A, while the Tapiddac was the least private partnership provider. Despite the preferences of private partnership providers, the respondent preferred affordability of houses (43.1%) rather than housing quality (29.3%), security (15.4) and housing accessibility (12.2%) was the lowest reason for the choice of houses. The result also revealed that too much bureaucratic process as one of the major challenges during acquiring of a house unit followed by a long waiting period. Also, the findings revealed that beneficiary must be an active civil servant with monthly salary or a registered business to serve as one of the criteria to be fulfilled before he/she can own a house.

Estimating Groundwater Flow Velocity in Shallow Volcanic Aquifers of the Ethiopian Highlands Using a Geospatial Technique

The shallow volcanic aquifer is the major rural water supply source in the Ethiopian highlands. A significant number of hand pump wells in these aquifers experience a rapid decline in yield and poor performance within a short period of time after construction. Hence, reliable estimation of groundwater flow velocity is important to understand groundwater flow dynamics, aquifer responses to stresses and to optimize the sustainable management of groundwater resources. Here, we propose the geospatial technique using four essential input raster maps (groundwater elevation head, transmissivity, effective porosity and saturated thickness) to investigate groundwater flow velocity magnitude and direction in the shallow volcanic aquifers of the Ethiopian highlands. The results indicated that the high groundwater flow velocity in the Mecha site, ranging up to 47 m/day, was observed in the fractured scoraceous basalts. The Ejere site showed groundwater flow velocity not exceeding 7 m/day in the fractured basaltic aquifer and alluvial deposits. In the Sodo site, the groundwater flow velocity was observed to exceed 22 m/day in the fractured basaltic and rhyolitic aquifers affected by geological structures. The Abeshege site has a higher groundwater flow velocity of up to 195 m/day in the highly weathered and fractured basaltic aquifer. In all study sites, aquifers with less fractured basalt, trachyte, rhyolite, welded pyroclastic, and lacustrine deposits exhibited lower groundwater flow velocity values. The groundwater flow velocity directions in all study sites are similar to the groundwater elevation head, which signifies the local and regional groundwater flow directions. This work can be helpful in shallow groundwater resource development and management for rural water supply.

Effect of sand mining on riparian landcover transformation in Dallung-Kukou catchment of the White Volta basin, Ghana

Rapid urbanization has increased demand for sand in the construction industry to meet housing and infrastructure needs of urban population. The Dallung-Kukuo catchment of the White Volta River Basin is a major sand mining site for the construction industry in Tamale and other peri-urban communities. On the contrary, the river serves as a major source of water supply to the population. Riparian vegetation is essential to water protection, but research has focused extensively on the impact of sand mining on water quality in the river basin. The present study employed GIS and remote sensing techniques coupled with in-situ vegetation sampling to assess riparian land cover changes from 1990 to 2021. Land cover images of the catchment revealed a 14.9% increase in sand mining area, while river bed area and woodland cover decreased by 0.7% and 20%, respectively, from 1990 to 2021. A comparison of woody plant diversity also showed a higher Shannon diversity index in the unmined area of the riparian zone (3.0) compared to the sand mining area (2.0). Environmental Protection Agency and traditional authorities should intensify monitoring to protect the White Volta basin from unsustainable exploitation.

Hydrogeochemical characterization of ground and surface water in the eastern part of the Adamawa-Yade domain, Bertoua-Cameroon

Groundwater and surface water are major sources of water supply to the inhabitants of Bertoua. Hydrogeochemical study conducted in the study area aimed at identifying the processes that control the chemistry of groundwater sources and to examine the quality of the water sources for domestic and agricultural purposes. Fifty water samples were collected from boreholes, open wells, springs, and rivers within the study area in January 2022 (the dry season). The samples were analyzed for physicochemical characteristics including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and major ions. The water samples were acidic with 94% of pH values less than 6.5. The EC varied from 21 to 776 µS/cm and TDS (8.5–388 mg/l). The low EC and TDS indicate low mineralization and fresh water. The relative abundance of major ions (meg/l) was Ca2+> Mg2+> K+>Na+ for cations and {text{H}text{C}text{O}}_{3}^{-}>Cl−>NO3−>SO42− for anions. These major ions concentrations were low and within the WHO guideline values for drinking water. From Piper diagram three water facies were observed; Ca-SO4, Ca-HCO3 and mixed Ca-Mg-Cl. Rock-water interaction, ion exchange, silicate weathering and anthropogenic activities were the processes responsible for the groundwater chemistry with some minor evaporative effects. Based on Sodium Adsorption Ratio and Residual Sodium Bicarbonate all samples fall in the excellent category for agriculture.

Characteristics and Driving Mechanisms of Shallow Groundwater Chemistry in Xining City

Groundwater is one of the major sources of water supply, especially in the western arid regions. However, with the deepening of the western development strategy, industrialization and urbanization have increased groundwater resource demands in Xining City. Overexploitation and utilization have led to a series of changes in the groundwater environment. Identifying the chemical evolution characteristics and formation mechanism of groundwater is crucial for preventing its deterioration and ensuring sustainable use. By combining hydrochemistry and multivariate statistical techniques, the chemical characteristics of groundwater in Xining City were analyzed, and the formation mechanism of groundwater and the influence of different factors were discussed. The results showed that there were as many as 36 chemical types of shallow groundwater in Xining City, mainly HCO3-Ca(Mg) (60.00%) and HCO3·SO4-Ca(Mg) (11.81%). There were 5-6 types of groundwater chemical types in bare land, grassland, and woodland. Groundwater chemical types in construction land and cultivated land were more complex, up to 21 types, indicating that they were strongly affected by human activities. The chemical evolution process of groundwater in the study area was mainly affected by rock weathering and leaching, evaporative crystallization, and cation exchange. The main controlling factors were water-rock interaction (contribution rate 27.56%) and industrial wastewater discharge (contribution rate 16.16%), acid-base environment (contribution rate 16.00%), excessive application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (contribution rate 13.11%), and domestic sewage (contribution rate 8.82%). On account of the chemical characteristics of groundwater in Xining City and the influence of human activities, the management and control suggestions on the development and utilization of groundwater resources were put forward.

Polluting our rivers in search of gold: how sustainable are reforms to stop informal miners from returning to mining sites in Ghana?

Introduction: Although artisanal gold mining has contributed to livelihoods in many rural communities across the world, it has destroyed and polluted several water bodies.Methods: Using Prestea in the southwestern region of Ghana, this paper demonstrates how artisanal gold mining has culminated in the pollution of freshwater bodies and the ecosystem. A non-probabilistic purposive sampling technique was used for the selection of twelve artisanal gold mining communities. We used participant observation, in-depth interviews with stakeholders, a review of policy and legal documents, reports from media websites, and site visits to various artisanal gold mining sites. We observed that artisanal gold mining has destroyed major rivers, which used to serve as major sources of water supply for domestic and irrigation purposes. To achieve benign production, the Ghanaian government over the years has made efforts to formalize the operations of galamsey activities through six main routes: policy intervention, a complete ban on their activities, military strategy, national dialogue, alternative livelihood programs, and community mining. We assessed the sustainability of three of these measures (i.e., policy intervention, a complete ban on ASM, and the military strategy).Results: We found that none of these approaches is sustainable, as the miners continue to defy the orders and military brutalities and return to mining sites to continue their operations.Conclusion: Therefore, acknowledging ASM as a significant tool for reducing poverty and its pertinent contribution to the larger economy, providing tax exemptions and incentives to informal miners to boost their production, involving local mining communities and subaltern miners in mineral governance and decision-making, removing bureaucracies and lowering costs to make the registration of new ASM businesses easier, and strengthening the mine regulatory infrastructure are necessary to formalize the sector.

Changes in molecular dissolved organic matter during coagulation/sedimentation and chlorine and chlorine dioxide disinfection by non-target (or unknown) screening analysis

River water is a major water supply source, and its quality is strongly affected by seasonal changes in dissolved organic matter (DOM) and anthropogenic discharge. This study uses unknown screening analysis with Orbitrap mass spectrometry to investigate differences in molecular DOM in upstream and downstream areas of Phong River, Thailand, in addition to changes caused by coagulation/sedimentation, disinfection byproducts (DBPs), and formation by chlorine (Cl2) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2) in the dry season and after the first rainfall in the wet season. Among 2000 DOM features in the river, DOM with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO features) was the most abundant class followed by CHO features with other heteroatoms such as N, NS, and S. CHO features with a relatively higher degree of oxidation (high carbon oxidation state, Cos) and highly oxygenated (high oxygen to carbon ratio, O/C) characteristics decreased preferentially via coagulation and sedimentation by polyaluminium chloride. Approximately 130 Cl-containing (CHOCl) features increased or were newly formed after Cl2 and ClO2 disinfection, respectively. Only 14 Cl2-CHOCl and four ClO2-CHOCl features were commonly formed in all water samples, while many unique DBPs were identified in each disinfection; therefore, reactions of unique DBP precursors in each water sample can produce unique DBPs. Additionally, around 100 CHO DBPs were also found after both Cl2 and ClO2 disinfection. Both Cl2 and ClO2 selectively reacted with CHO features with a relatively higher degree of oxidation (high Cos). Cl2 disinfection produced more oxygenated (high O/C) and oxidized (Cos) DBPs than ClO2 disinfection. Several hundred DBP precursors of Cl2 electrophilic substitution were found not only from natural sources but also from wastewater discharge or runoff.

Modeling of groundwater potential in Kericho County, Kenya, using GMS_MODFLOW

Groundwater is a major source of water supply in Kericho County, Kenya. However, this water source is threatened by the rise in the human population and climate change. Under these conditions, it is crucial to assess the sustainability of the groundwater resource in Kericho County. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the potential of groundwater in Kericho County, Kenya. Groundwater Modelling System (GMS) software was used to develop a conceptual model to aid in the assessment of groundwater. Results from calibration showed hydraulic conductivity values varying from 0.279 to 1.12 m/d, while the recharge rates ranged from 0.5 to 0.00022 m/d. Also, a predictive run was conducted in the calibrated model to examine the aquifer's response to abstractions under three different scenarios. Scenario 1 assessed the impacts of population growth on groundwater resources; scenario 2 evaluated the effects of climate change on groundwater; scenario 3 assessed the effect of population growth and climate change on groundwater in the study area. The results showed that excessive pumping rates interfere with the surface water and groundwater interactions. There was slight decline in constant head for location near the river. However, the recharge rate was higher than the abstraction, indicating that groundwater will remain sustainable as the primary source of water supply for the residents. In conclusion, the volumetric budget for the three scenarios shows that the aquifer has sufficient water supply to be used by the population despite the effects of climate change and population growth. Despite the availability of adequate water supply from the aquifer, there is a need for an effective and sustainable use of water from the aquifer, especially in the face of climate change and population increase.

Delineation and Mapping of Groundwater Quality in Chengalpattu District of Tamil Nadu, India

Groundwater is a major natural source of water supply all around the world. It's utilised for irrigation, industry, and even household purposes. The quality of groundwater is important for irrigation. Irrigation water quality plays a critical role in long-term soil productivity. To assess the quality of the groundwater, 149 samples were taken in May 2022 from the coastal blocks of the Chengalpattu district: Chithamur (42), Lathur (37), Thirukalukundram (31), and Thiruporur (39). The samples were analysed in accordance with the appropriate protocol. The study revealed that the coastline blocks pH ranges from 8.92 to 7.52 and their EC ranges from 11.50 to 0.13 dS m-1. The Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) ranges from 20.00 to -6.80, while the Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) ranges from 14.77 to 0.26 meq/L. The Chengalpattu district has a high concentration of alkali water, according to CSSRI, Karnal classification. Among the coastal blocks, the Thiruporur block contains more alkali water compared to other coastal blocks (46%).

EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY THROUGH WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI), GOMTI RIVER, JAUNPUR CITY, INDIA

Jaunpur is an ancient city situated on the bank of River Gomti which bisects the municipal area of Jaunpur city (located between 25°44’ to 25°46’ North latitude and 82°40’ to 82°43’ East longitude) in the north and south directions. Population growth and urbanisation rate in the city is very high during the last few decades. The rate of environmental degradation has accelerated due to the population growth and the process of urbanisation and industrialisation has increased the level of pollutants. All the sources of water in Jaunpur city have been deteriorated with the growth of population, urbanisation and industrialization. The river serves as a major source of domestic water supply of the Jaunpur city, subsequently; the river receives back the untreated domestic wastewater from Jaunpur city (about 450 mld) directly during its course. It causes the river water quality deterioration. While entering the city Gomti river water quality can be seen less polluted but it increases as it run in the city core. The study aims to determine the water quality of river Gomti in Jaunpur city. Water quality variables are integrated to determine the water quality index value along the river. In order to determine the water quality, seven stations were selected along the stretch of river. Data have been collected on the water quality from Gomti river through sampling and analysis for pre and post monsoon, 2015 and 2016. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated using the Weighted Arithmetic Index method. This method appears to be more systematic and gives comparative evaluation of the water quality of sampling stations. It is also helpful for public to understand the quality of water as well as being a useful tool in many ways in the field of water quality management.

Inclusion of groundwater and socio-economic factors for assessing comprehensive drought vulnerability over Narmada River Basin, India: A geospatial approach

Drought is amongst the most precarious natural hazards associated with severe repercussions. The characterization of droughts is usually carried out by the sector-specific (meteorological/agricultural/hydrological) indices that are mostly based on hydroclimatic variables. Groundwater is the major source of water supply during drought periods, and the socio-economic factors control the aftermaths of droughts; however, they are often ignored by the sector-specific indices, thereby failing to capture the overall impacts of droughts. This study aims to circumvent this issue by incorporating hydroclimatic, socio-economic and physiographic information to assess the overall drought vulnerability over Narmada River Basin, India, which is an agriculture-dominated basin highly dependent on groundwater resources. A Comprehensive Drought Vulnerability Indicator (CDVI) is proposed that assimilates the information on meteorological fluctuations, depth to groundwater level, slope, distance from river reach, population density, land use/land cover, soil type, and elevation through a geospatial approach. The CDVI showed a remarkable geospatial variation over the basin, with a majority (66.4%) of the area under highly to extremely vulnerable conditions. Out of 35 constituent districts of the basin, 9, 22, and 4 districts exhibited moderate, high, and extreme vulnerability to droughts, respectively. These results urge an immediate attention towards reducing drought vulnerability and enhancing resilience towards drought occurrences. The proposed multi-dimensional approach for drought vulnerability mapping would certainly help policy-makers to proactively plan and manage water resources over the basin, especially to ameliorate the pernicious impacts of droughts.

Urinary Schistosomiasis and its Associated Risk Factors Among Inhabitants of Internally Displaced Peoples’ (IDP) Camps in Maiduguri, North-eastern Nigeria: A Cross-sectional Study

Urinary schistosomiasis is a tropical parasitic disease caused by Schistosoma haematobium and is usually associated with lesions in the genito-urinary tracts of affected people. A cross-sectional study was designed to examine factors influencing the occurrence of the disease among inhabitants of the IDP camps located in Maiduguri between October 2016 and June 2019. Information on demography, major sources of water supply and water-contact behaviours were obtained using pre-validated structured questionnaire. Urine samples were collected and examined for Schistosoma haematobium eggs using standard methods. A sample yielding at least one egg was considered positive while a sample that did not yield any was considered to be negative. The characteristics and disease risk factors were compared between respondents that tested positive and those that were negative for the infection using univariable statistical analysis and factors found to be significant were further analyzed using multivariable logistic regression. The results showed the overall prevalence of infection among the IDPs to be 21.9% (95% Confidence Interval, 95% CI= 19.54-24.42%). The multivariable logistic regression model showed that the statistically significant (p<0.05) predictors of infection including sex, occupation (c2 = 9.873, df=4, p=0.04), participation in water sporting activity and having washed/bathed in open water body before displacement, presence of signs of the disease in a tent/room member, knowledge of the disease and major source of water supply (c2 = 72.467, df=2, p<0.001) before the displacement. The relatively high prevalence of the disease in the study area may have negative effects on the reproduction and productivity of the IDPs. Based on the identified risk factors, behavioural changes, improved sanitation and safe water supply were recommended as control measures against urinary schistosomiasis in the study area.

Simulation of Quantity and Quality of Saq Aquifer Using Artificial Intelligence and Hydraulic Models

Scarcity of water resources is becoming a threatening issue in arid regions like Gulf. Accurate prediction of quantities and quality of groundwater is the first step towards better management of water resources where groundwater is the major source of water supply. Groundwater modelling with respect to its quantity and quality has been performed in this paper using Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Adaptive Neurofuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), and hydraulic model MODFLOW. Five types of ANN models with various training functions have been investigated to find the most efficient training function for the prediction of quantity and quality of groundwater, which is an original contribution useful for engineering sector. The results of the hydraulic model, ANFIS, and ANN have been compared. Nash‐Sutcliffe Model Efficiency and Mean Square Error have been used for assessing the performance of models. Taylor’s Diagram has also been used to compare various models. The part of Saq Aquifer lying in the Qassim Region has been investigated as the study area. Modern tools, including Geographical Information System (GIS) and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) are applied to process the required data for modelling. Climatic, geographical, and quality of groundwater (contaminants) data are obtained from the Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture, Jeddah/Riyadh. ANFIS model is found to be the most efficient for modelling both the quality and quantity of the aquifer. Sensitivity analysis was performed, and then various future scenarios were investigated for sustainable groundwater pumping. The results of the research will be useful for the community and experts working in the field of water resources engineering, planning, and management in arid regions.

ANTHROPOGENIC WASTE EFFECTS ON AQUACULTURE IN RIVER BENUE AT MAKURDI, NIGERIA

River Benue originates from Cameroonian mountains and flows westwards into Nigeria covering about 1,488km into Makurdi. River Benue divides Makurdi town into North and South banks, occupied throughout its embankment by houses, markets, industrial and commercial structures producing all manners of municipal wastes and disposing them into the river while the same river is use for fishing and fish culture as well as the major source of water supply for the inhabitants living along the embankment. The purpose of the study was to assess the water quality parameters of River Benue at Makurdi metropolis for Aquaculture. Five sampling sites were selected along the water course at areas considered full of possible activities that are capable of affecting the quality of the river water for aquaculture. Water samples were collected monthly for a period of six months, (August to January). Water quality characteristics considered vital for aquatic life were examined: physical parameters investigated were Colour, Temperature, Turbidity, Suspended solids (SS) and Total dissolve solids(TDS); chemical parameters were pH, Total alkalinity, Total hardness Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, Phosphate, Nitrate, electrical conductivity, Dissolved oxygen, Biochemical oxygen demand, Chemical oxygen demand and Feacal coliform. Amongthe18 parameters studied: Water colour averagely appeared brownish, temperature ranged from 270c to 34.40c, turbidity (25.2 to 67.1 NTU), Suspended solids (22.5 to 55.6 mg/l), Total dissolve solids (189to820mg/l), pH (6.2 to 7.6),Total alkalinity (51.0 to 98.0 mg/l), Total hardness (58.0 to 141 mg/l),Phosphate (6.35 to 10.20 mg/l),Nitrate (2.1 to5.15mg/l),Magnesium (21.6 - 38.6 mg/l), Calcium (34.6 - 48.2 mg/l),Iron (0.37 - 1.35 mg/l), electrical conductivity (89.6 to 565 μS/cm), Dissolved oxygen(14.4 to 18.4 mg/l), Biochemical oxygen demand(5.4 to 9.42 mg/l), Chemical oxygen demand(25.7 to 33. 0 mg/l) and Feacal coliform(34.1 to 87.2 MPN). Most of their mean values were within the limit of FAO for aquaculture, except Magnesium, Calcium, Iron and Phosphate which might not be suitable for some species of fishes and fish culture without some level of treatment.

AQUIFER DELINEATION USING SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD IN RUMUOHIA COMMUNITY, EMOHUA L.GA, RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

Groundwater is a major source of water supply throughout the world. Its dependence is at the increase, so is highly necessary to ensure that there is a significant supply of potable water with high quality. On the verge of seeing these problems, we investigated shallow aquifer in Rumuohia community in Emohua local government area, Rivers State, Nigeria which aimed at utilizing seismic refraction method to delineate depth to shallow aquifer and geological structure of the terrain at five selected locations. The analysis of the result shows two layers with the presence of sand-gravel and clay lithologies. Layer 1 in all five locations is made up of clay with an average velocity of 274.83m/s with a thickness range of 4.88m to 9.98m at an average of 7m. Layer 2 in two locations is made up of sandy clay. In one location, it is clay while in the remaining two locations they are sand with gravel (dry), which infers a potential aquifer with an average velocity of 422.63m/s. The sand being present indicates a good aquifer, and clay serves as a stopper for the sand since it tends to go through compaction by overburden pressure. The study area is generally a good site for a borehole with a high tendency for potable water supply.

A framework based on high-resolution imagery datasets and MCS for forecasting evaporation loss from small reservoirs in groundwater-based agriculture

In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation from small irrigation reservoirs can be a significant source of water loss. Since groundwater is a major source of water supply for irrigation, evaporation losses from irrigation water reservoirs represent a challenging aspect in aquifers governance in such limited-water areas. Estimating these losses is crucial for water resource managers to regulate irrigation reservoirs development and to implement appropriate mitigation measures. Several practical challenges make the individual inventory and monitoring of small irrigation reservoirs unfeasible, especially in large irrigation perimeters with dynamic irrigated surfaces. Thus, significant uncertainty is generally associated with the determinist estimation of evaporation from small irrigation reservoirs. This study is an attempt to develop remote sensing and Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS)-based framework to estimate the evaporation loss from small irrigation water reservoirs used for storing groundwater pumped from the Berrechid aquifer, in Morocco. To that end, remote sensing datasets were validated using data of 49 known reservoirs to identify small reservoirs and their surface area over the growing season. An Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) of the remotely sensed results was conducted to process the outlier values. Meanwhile, MCS was implemented using 20000 iterations for developing a probabilistic model to estimate the annual evaporation loss associated with exceedance probabilities. The results showed that for an exceedance probability of 90% the associated annual evaporation loss is about 1.50 Mm3·yr−1 with a median of about 1.84 Mm3·yr−1. A sensitivity analysis (SA) of the model was conducted which revealed that the model is more sensitive to the pan coefficient (Cp) followed by reservoir area, and pan evaporation (EVP) for dry months. As for wet months, the SA showed that the model is more sensitive to the daily EVP. Overall, the study provides a new insight for forecasting evaporation loss from small reservoirs and, therefore, will help decision-makers to consider the uncertainty in evaluating the economic viability of mitigation measures. Furthermore, the methodology developed could be valuable in estimating the evaporation loss from the reservoirs in poorly monitored zones.