Major Ports Research Articles

Universalization of port activities in the context of structural changes in the port environment (on the example of the ports of Szczecin and Swinoujscie)

The Covid-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine are examples of crisis situations that caused significant structural changes in the area of port operations as well. While both phenomena led to the disruption of important logistics chains, they also facilitated the emergence of new connections and the arrival of new goods at ports. Ports have not always been sufficiently prepared for such unexpected changes in the external environment. These changes have also led to internal movement of transshipments from one region to another, within the same port or between ports. In such situations, doubts arise about the vision of port development, the degree of specialization of transshipment terminals or, conversely, the universalization of activities. This is also related to the problem of so-called ‘bottlenecks’, which arise from the intensity of transshipment activity driven by various structural factors. The result of the research below will present conclusions related to the need to make decisions on the expansion of port infrastructure, in some of its areas.The article presents a case study of the Szczecin - Swinoujscie port complex, a major port in the southern Baltic Sea area. It examines the changes in the structure and dynamics of transshipment resulting from the Covid-19 pandemic and Russia’s attack on Ukraine, and their impact on the versatility of ports, defined as the ability to handle a wide range of goods. In the program document called “Strategy for the Development of the Ports of Szczecin - Swinoujscie” we can learn that the mission of the seaports of Szczecin and Swinoujscie for the period 2014 - 2027 is: “Creating favorable conditions for the development of seaports in Szczecin and Swinoujscie as the most universal port complex in the southern Baltic”. Participants in the port trade here are also assured that the ports will be able to handle any type of ship, with any type of cargo.The author hypothesized that large structural changes in the port environment caused by random phenomena resulted in increased universalization of activities in whole port, despite the fact that pointwise (in some areas of the port) it became even more specialized.

Feasibility studies on deepening Pondicherry Port to accommodate larger vessels explored

A Union territory in India, Pondicherry was a major trading port with the Chinese during the Chola era, having been active since 100 B.C. About 150 km south of Chennai, it was an open roadstead anchorage port. Until the late 1980s, the old port operated as a lighter-age port during French rule, beginning in the 17th century. From 1986 until 1989, the New Port was developed. An offshore (south) breakwater connected to a north breakwater by a bridge makes up the New Port. The channel, which is 2000 meters long and 40 meters broad, was built between 1986 and 1989. It also has a 150-meter container berth. An undersea tunnel has been built between the north and south breakwaters to facilitate maintenance dredging and allow cargo and fishing vessels to pass through without interruption. The port was in use until 2004, when it was shut down for a lack of maintenance dredging. Since 2004, there has been no freight business; only small fishing boats are currently in use. The viability of enhancing Pondicherry Port's current infrastructure to accommodate feeder-class vessels is investigated in this paper.

Knowledge and attitudes of healthcare personnel about vaccination of migrant and refugee children and adolescents

BackgroundThe number of migrants to Greece has increased considerably the last decade. This study assessed the knowledge and attitudes of healthcare personnel (HCP) toward vaccination of newly-arrived children and adolescents in the Aegean islands, a major port of entry of migrants and refugees to Europe. MethodsThe study was conducted from September 2020 to January 2021. All (166) HCP employed in the public health sector of the Aegean islands were invited to participate. A structured questionnaire was used to collect demographic data and data about their knowledge and attitudes toward vaccinations for migrant and refugees. ResultsA total of 120 HCP participated (72 % response rate), including 54 (45 %) physicians, 43 nurses (35.8 %), and 23 health visitors (19.2 %). Sixty-seven (55.8 %) HCP were aware of the national vaccination guidelines. Health visitors had higher rates of knowledge about the national vaccination guidelines, compared with nurses and physicians (87% versus 44,2% and 51,9%; p-value-0.001). Overall, 73 (60.8 %) HCP were aware of vaccinations during the first examination upon arrival. Primary-healthcare physicians were more likely to be aware about the time of vaccine administration compared with hospital-based physicians (74 % versus 50 %; p-value = 0.006). Out of 120 HCP, 45 % knew that vaccination guidelines apply to all newly-arrived migrant and refugees and 65 % that vaccinations are free-of-charge. Overall, 67.5 % of participants supported no serology testing before vaccination, 21.8 % were against free-of-charge vaccinations, and 55 % recommended only priority vaccinations. ConclusionsThere is a need to increase HCP’ awareness and knowledge through training programs and tailored protocols focusing on vaccinations for newly-arrived migrant and refugee children and adolescents in order to promote effective vaccination of this vulnerable population.

Tracking antimicrobial resistance indicator genes in wild flatfish from the English Channel and the North Sea area: A one health concern

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a burgeoning environmental concern demanding a comprehensive One Health investigation to thwart its transmission to animals and humans, ensuring food safety. Seafood, housing bacterial AMR, poses a direct threat to consumer health, amplifying the risk of hospitalization, invasive infections, and death due to compromised antimicrobial treatments. The associated antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in diverse marine species can amass and transmit through various pathways, including surface contact, respiration, and feeding within food webs. Our research, focused on the English Channel and North Sea, pivotal economic areas, specifically explores the occurrence of four proposed AMR indicator genes (tet(A), blaTEM, sul1, and intI1) in a benthic food web. Analyzing 350 flatfish samples' skin, gills, and gut, our quantitative PCR (qPCR) results disclosed an overall prevalence of 71.4% for AMR indicator genes. Notably, sul1 and intI1 genes exhibited higher detection in fish skin, reaching a prevalence of 47.5%, compared to gills and gut samples. Proximity to major European ports (Le Havre, Dunkirk, Rotterdam) correlated with increased AMR gene frequencies in fish, suggesting these ports' potential role in AMR spread in marine environments. We observed a broad dispersion of indicator genes in the English Channel and the North Sea, influenced by sea currents, maritime traffic, and flatfish movements. In conclusion, sul1 and intI1 genes emerge as robust indicators of AMR contamination in the marine environment, evident in seawater and species representing a benthic food web. Further studies are imperative to delineate marine species' role in accumulating and transmitting AMR to humans via seafood consumption. This research sheds light on the urgent need for a concerted effort in comprehending and mitigating AMR risks in marine ecosystems within the context of One Health.

Location and Capacity Planning of Freight Villages: The Case of Türkiye

Freight villages are logistics hubs where distribution and storage related activities meet. Determining their locations and capacities is a strategically important yet a difficult problem due to its complex structure. This paper provides a mixed integer linear programming model for identifying the locations, number, and capacities of freight villages. Objective is to set up a distribution network and minimize its total cost. The proposed model is computationally efficient as the optimal solution can be found within minutes. The model is applied using real life data in Turkey. The application includes major container ports as supply points and all cities as demand points, which are also alternative locations for freight villages. Optimal solution provides a plan and a budget to build the required capacity and number of logistics villages dispersed geographically. Sensitivity analysis is also conducted to investigate the system-wide costs and derive insights when there is a limit on the number of freight villages.

Data-driven research on the impact of COVID-19 on the global container shipping network

As the most dominant maritime transport mode, container transport is deeply embedded in the global supply chain. Therefore, whilst the world economy was hit by COVID-19, container transport was also inevitably affected. To comprehensively assess the impact of COVID-19 on container transport, this research constructed a global container shipping network and applied complex network theory to compare and analyse the changes in shipping network flows, vulnerability and the status of major hub ports before and after COVID-19. Results showed that the impact of COVID-19 on ports and links in the container shipping network was related to its hub-and-spoke structure and regionalisation. Hub ports on the main shipping lanes and long-distance routes across regions were highly vulnerable to pandemic shocks. Nevertheless, the global container shipping network structure was minimally affected by COVID-19, with increased network size and overall accessibility and a more robust network compared with that in the preoutbreak period. The COVID-19 outbreak also led to a significant change in the status of major global hub ports. This research proposes an evaluation framework that considers network flows and topology. The results could support industry management and shipping companies to improve their contingency plans and port strategies.

Inter-Port Evolutions and Prospects of Three Major Port Hubs in Europe: a Visualization Perspective Using Ternary Diagram Method

Inter-Port Evolutions and Prospects of Three Major Port Hubs in Europe: a Visualization Perspective Using Ternary Diagram Method

China-Africa cooperation and challenges related to the belt and road initiative

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) presents a new vision of three-dimensional international cooperation and relations that break not only the regional development model of scattered distribution but also strengthen connectivity and economic collaboration between China and participating nations. Domestically, it runs through eastern, central and western parts of China, linking major coastal port cities and extending to ASEAN countries. Overseas, it embraces Southeast Asia and Northeast Asia via land and connects Europe and Africa via sea, further forming a circular economic zone linking sea and land. This article reviews the literature on the role of BRI in promoting economic cooperation among countries along these routes. Similarly, it examines criticisms leveled against the BRI and clarifies misconceptions embedded in such criticisms. With specific reference to Africa, the paper analyses the benefits inherent in the BRI and critically examines the challenges that may confront the Initiative. The article equally takes into cognizance the inevitability of future challenges and frictions that may occur between China and Africa and, therefore, suggests a co-development model that could be used to ameliorate, if not solve, these challenges. In conclusion, the paper recommended that despite the high risks and existing threats, the BRI can be implemented successfully with both China and Africa achieving a balance of interest as well as long-term and mutual benefits.

Impacts of maritime shipping on air pollution along the US East Coast

Abstract. Air pollution is considered a leading threat to human health in the US and worldwide. An important source of air pollution in coastal areas is the globally increasing maritime shipping traffic. In this study, we take a high-resolution modeling approach to investigate the impacts of ship emissions on concentrations of various atmospheric pollutants, under the meteorological conditions and emissions of the year 2018. We utilize the Comprehensive Air Quality Model with extensions (CAMx) to simulate transport, diffusion, and chemical reactions and the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to provide the meteorological inputs. We focus on four criteria pollutants – fine particulate matter with a diameter smaller than 2.5 µm (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and ozone (O3) – as well as nitrogen oxide (NO), and we calculate their concentrations in the presence and absence of ship emissions along the US East Coast, particularly in the proximity of major ports. We find that ship emissions increase the PM2.5 concentrations over the ocean and over a few areas inland. The 98th percentile of the 24 h average PM2.5 concentrations (the “design value” used by the US Environmental Protection Agency) increased by up to 3.2 µg m−3 in some coastal areas. In addition, ships contribute significantly to SO2 concentrations, up to 95 % over the Atlantic and up to 90 % over land in coastal states, which represents a ∼45 ppb increase in the SO2 design values in some states. The 98th percentile of the hourly NO2 concentrations also increased by up to 15 ppb at the major ports and along the shore. In addition, we find that the impact of shipping emissions on O3 concentrations is not uniform, meaning that ships affect ozone pollution in both positive and negative ways: over the ocean, O3 concentrations were significantly higher in the presence of ships, whereas O3 concentrations decreased in the presence of ships in major coastal cities. Our simulation results show that ships emit significant amounts of fresh NO in the atmosphere, which then helps scavenge O3 in volatile organic compound (VOC)-limited areas, such as major ports. By contrast, over the ocean (NOx-limited regime), enhanced NOx concentrations due to ships contribute to the formation of O3 and therefore enhance O3 concentrations. Overall, due to the dominant southwesterly wind direction in the region, the impacts of ships on air pollutants mainly remain offshore. However, in coastal states near major ports, the impacts are significantly important.

Local mortality and costs from ship-related emissions in three major Portuguese ports

Local models have the advantage of accounting for specific characteristics of the local environment and population, potentially improving the accuracy of results compared to regional and global models. An impact pathway analysis was conducted to estimate the years of life lost (log-linear functions based on WHO-HRAPIE relative risks) and external costs (using the statistical value of a life year) related to PM2.5 and NO2 emissions from ships in three Portuguese municipalities, where three maritime ports are located. In-port ship-related PM2.5 emissions caused 90 (95% CI: 59–118), 130 (95% CI: 86–170) and 11 (95% CI: 8–15) years of life lost for Matosinhos, Setúbal and Sines, respectively. In-port ship-related NO2 emissions in Matosinhos were responsible for 64 (95% CI: 37–89) years of life lost. Setúbal had the highest total costs, with PM2.5 emissions costing €4.0 million (95% CI: 2.7–5.2). Although Sines had the lowest total costs, the costs per capita were higher than in Matosinhos and almost the same as in Setúbal. The findings demonstrate that in-port ship-related emissions reduce the average life expectancy of populations living near port areas and result in high societal costs. The results can serve as a benchmark for assessing the benefits of implementing shore side electricity and can be used by port authorities and policymakers to justify the need for financial or organisational support programs for infrastructure investments.”

Strengthening tsunami maritime response and mitigation through inclusive stakeholder engagement: Lessons learned in Washington State

Among the most vulnerable facilities to tsunami impacts are ports, harbours and marinas. The ability of maritime infrastructure to withstand a disaster and resume operations quickly plays a major factor in the recovery of the local community and economy in the short and long term. Despite this, little established guidance exists to assist the maritime community with addressing their tsunami risk in an actionable, site-specific manner. To close this gap and improve the resilience of its maritime community, Washington State has begun developing tsunami maritime response and mitigation strategies for major ports, harbours and marinas along its 3,200 miles of coastline. These strategies include detailed information about the location’s specific tsunami risk, recommended guidance for vessel operators in the area, and tsunami mitigation and response recommendations ranked by their implementation feasibility for the maritime entity in question. Most importantly, the strategies are created through close collaboration with local key stakeholders, subject matter experts, local emergency management and state agencies to ensure a final deliverable that is accurate, thorough and, above all, useful to the local maritime entity and its tenants and users. As this paper will discuss, the lessons learned during the planning and delivery of these strategies provide valuable insight for professionals in the maritime, business continuity and emergency management fields, including how to conduct effective and inclusive stakeholder engagement, identify gaps and opportunities in resilience planning, and establish a deeper understanding of tsunami maritime risk and hazards.

Enhancing Interpretation of Cetacean Acoustic Monitoring: Investigating Factors that Influence Vocalization Patterns of Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphins in an Urbanized Estuary, Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, USA

The Charleston Harbor in South Carolina (SC)is a major port that experiences high levels of vessel traffic. Historical analyses of coastal bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus, now Tursiops erebennus) sightings identified multiple core use areas in the harbor that overlap with these anthropogenic activities. Informed by these long-term spatial data, passive acoustic monitoring, visual surveys, and prey sampling were conducted from December 2017 to June 2019 to assess the relationships and multivariate interactions that may influence dolphin vocalization patterns. Vocalizations varied spatially and temporally, peaking in fall and winter months coinciding with decreases in water temperature and daylight hours, following patterns previously reported in other SC estuaries. Dolphin prey and total fish abundance decreased with water temperature, which may indicate that dolphins echolocate and whistle more frequently in the winter months when prey are scarce and sound-producing species are less soniferous. Dolphin sightings and vocalizations were highly correlated. Dolphin occurrence was highest in the areas surrounding the confluence of the Cooper and Wando Rivers, along the shipping channel, where vessel and sound-producing fish detections were greatest. When vessel noise occurred, dolphins increased their vocalizations, which suggests that this population may be modifying its acoustic repertoire in response to increased noise levels. Multivariate interactions indicate strong spatial and seasonal patterns in vocalization rates that may be associated with dolphin and prey abundance as well as noise-induced redundancy.

An evolution of the Global Container Shipping Network: port connectivity and trading community structure (2011–2017)

Port connectivity and trading community structure are two fundamental network characteristics that complement one another in explaining the evolution of maritime transport networks. Although port connectivity has been widely studied in the literature, the investigations on trading community structures are rather limited. To better fill this gap, this paper aims to provide a more complete picture of the Global Container Shipping Network (GCSN)’s evolution, based on our earlier works in MEL. In doing so, the GCSN, representing a snapshot of trade at the end of each quarter, from Q3/2011 to Q3/2017, is first constructed. The connectivity of ports and their respective trading communities are then extracted by the Container Port Connectivity Index and the Louvain algorithm, respectively. With our proposed framework, related players would be able to understand the growth of GCSN, as well as the impacts of maritime occurrences on the network of container shipping. Our computational results indicate that port connectivity and trading community structure gradually evolve according to the economic conditions that change over time and the evolution of GCSN could be well explained by these two explanatory variables. In this regard, ports in East Asia consistently dominate others in terms of both inbound and outbound connectivity, led by Shanghai and other major ports of mainland China. Furthermore, the formation of trading communities largely depends on trading patterns—rather than geographical locations—which is evident from the insolvency and mergers of communities in the North American region right after the expansion of the Panama Canal in 2016.

IMPROVING THE INFRASTRUCTURE OF CRUISE TERMINALS IN INDIA

India's potential for cruise tourism is obvious, given its 7,000 kilometres of coastline and extensive network of lakes and rivers that remain unexplored. However, India is relatively low on the global cruise tourist map due to a lack of infrastructure. The explanations are numerous and frequently covered at all travel conferences. The government has made grand statements about its infrastructure expenditures, but the nation's cruise sector believes there has been little real commitment. For the cruise industry to flourish, infrastructure is crucial. Sadly, according to Vivian Peres, Director of Ventours International Travel, a cruise tourist tour provider, India does not have it. "In major ports like Mumbai, the infrastructure will collapse if two ships call there each day. In terms of the infrastructure amenities for cruise passengers, cruise terminals compete with one another on a global scale. We still have a long way to go as a nation," said Peres. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to demonstrate the necessary infrastructure improvements for cruise terminals in the context of India, with the ultimate goal of developing both cruise terminals and cruise tourism in the country. The main areas of infrastructure development that could be taken into consideration for cruise terminals in India are outlined in this paper.

Liman İşletmelerinde Kadın Yönetici Algısı: Güney Marmara Limanlarında Bir Araştırma

The participation of women in the workforce is increasing day by day. In many sectors, women are competing at the management level alongside men. However, the maritime sector remains one of the male-dominated industries despite the increasing number of female employees. This study aims to examine perceptions regarding the participation of women in port management, specifically in the male-dominated maritime sector and port operations. Three major port enterprises operating in the South Marmara region constitute the sample of the study. A survey was conducted to measure the perceptions of female managers in port management. The data were subjected to Exploratory Factor Analysis, and the results were analysed using t-tests to determine whether perceptions differed based on the management level of the participants. As a result of the research, the majority of participants rejected the commonly accepted belief that the sector is not suitable for women. Research results do not show any difference at the manager and officer levels. The research findings are considered a positive and inspiring outcome that challenges dominant perceptions of women in leadership positions at the management level.

Maritime Trade Regulatory Framework In India: Current Landscape, Historical Evolution, Challenges, And Future Directions

This comprehensive article explores the multifaceted regulatory framework governing maritime trade in India. Beginning with a historical overview of maritime regulation in India, tracing its roots from ancient civilizations to colonial rule and post-independence reforms, it provides a contextual backdrop for understanding the current landscape. The article meticulously dissects the key components of India's maritime regulatory framework, highlighting the significance of laws such as the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958, and the Major Port Trusts Act, 1963. It also sheds light on the role of customs regulations, the Directorate General of Shipping (DGS), and international conventions in shaping this framework. Recognizing the challenges that the maritime sector faces, the article discusses pressing issues such as infrastructure bottlenecks, bureaucratic inefficiencies, safety concerns, and the need for regulatory reforms. It underscores the urgency of modernization and adaptation to international standards and security protocols. Furthermore, the article delves into recent initiatives and reforms, including the Sagarmala Project and the National Maritime Policy, aimed at revitalizing the maritime sector and enhancing its competitiveness. It also discusses the digitalization efforts and ease-of-doing-business measures undertaken to streamline processes and reduce red tape. Lastly, the article contemplates the future prospects of India's maritime regulatory framework. It emphasizes the importance of infrastructure development, sustainability, digitalization, security, regulatory flexibility, and the promotion of coastal shipping as essential components of India's maritime strategy. In conclusion, this article paints a comprehensive picture of India's maritime regulatory landscape, from its historical evolution to its current challenges and future aspirations, emphasizing the nation's commitment to fostering a dynamic and thriving maritime trade ecosystem.

Trypauchen vagina (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) a new established species in the Southwestern Atlantic

AbstractTrypauchen vagina (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) is a goby that lives burrowed into the substrata feeding on small invertebrates. It is native to the Indo‐pacific region, ranging from Kuwait to China. Recently, this fish has been reported outside the original range of distribution, being found in the Mediterranean Sea, and more recently in the northeastern Brazilian coast. The Mediterranean reports are usually associated with Lessepsian migration, while the reports from Brazil are possibly related to ballast water transportation. In the present work, we provide eight new records from southeastern Brazilian coast, all made in São Paulo state, far from the first record. These additional records raised concern since the presence of an alien species could implicate in environmental and economic losses. Thus, we decide to model the environmental suitability for this goby in the Brazilian coast, specially focusing on major ports, usually places with high ballast water propagule pressure. In addition, an analysis of the suitability in the Red Sea was also made, to verify the hypothesis of Lessepsian migration. The results revealed that temperature and primary productivity are among the most important parameters for the presence of T. vagina, also indicating a high environmental suitability for this species in the Red Sea and Brazilian coast, especially in southeastern region, where the new records were made. Due to the number of collected individuals, it is hard to affirm that this taxon presents a self‐sustaining population in Brazilian waters, but the several registers, in different locations and different life stages point to an establishment of the species in this new region. This population status allied with a high environmental suitability is alarming and should motivate new studies concerning T. vagina in Brazilian waters.

Evaluation of the potential for maritime cluster development in South Asia

ABSTRACT The maritime transport sector is a crucial domestic and regional economic engine, and maritime clusters can significantly enhance business operations and a country’s economy. South Asia does not have any recognised world-class maritime clusters but shows signs of intense clustering of the maritime sector. This study is the first to investigate the potential for maritime cluster development among ports in South Asia. The study adopted the following steps to reach a consensus on the clustering potential of eleven major south-Asian ports. First, experts were asked to rate eleven major South Asian ports on factors related to maritime cluster performance given by de Langen's cluster structure–cluster governance framework. These responses were used as input in the fuzzy-Delphi method to determine the weights of the factors. The ports were then ranked using the TOPSIS method based on their performance on these factors, which permitted an analysis of the long-term clustering potential of the evaluated South Asian port cities. The top three ranked ports were JNPT Mumbai, Port of Malé, and Port of Kolkata, offering valuable insights for port authorities, stakeholders, and policymakers to optimize resource usage and alleviate bottlenecks in South Asian maritime cluster development.

Research on the Carbon Emission Reduction Potential of the Ports in the Yangtze River Delta of China

Green port construction has a profound impact on China’s international climate commitment to carbon neutrality by 2050. To examine the carbon emission reduction potential of 20 major ports in the Yangtze River Delta port cluster of China, this study takes the perspective of environmental efficiency and employs dynamic exogenous variable DEA in efficiency evaluation. The results show the increasing environmental efficiency of the ports in the Yangtze River Delta, rising from 0.5116 in 2013 to 0.7276 in 2019. Also, there are significant spatial differences in efficiency. After considering exogenous variable, the average efficiency has increased from 0.5537 to 0.6276, indicating that regional green development is a critical factor in port environmental efficiency evaluation. Finally, the overall efficiency of input and output have risen, the slackness of carbon emission shows a trend of decreasing, and there is great potential for reducing carbon emissions from the perspective of port environmental efficiency. The previous studies paid less attention to dynamic efficiency, exogenous variables, and carbon emission. Therefore, this paper is the first comprehensive examination on the carbon emission reduction potential of China’s Yangtze River Delta port cluster from the perspective of dynamic environmental efficiency.

Green port management practices for sustainable port operations: a multi method study of Asian ports

ABSTRACT Ports pose a substantial portion of marine emissions, causing significant health and environmental risks. Providing profitable services in compliance with environmental regulations has become a significant challenge for port authorities. The idea of green port management practices (GPMP) has recently grown as an innovative method for balancing port economic growth with ecological issues. The study systematically reviewed the literature regarding the green port management model and identified an integrated set of drivers of GPMP for sustainable port operations. Besides, an empirical multiple case study methodology was adopted where twelve major Asian ports from developing and developed countries were investigated through a performance-based scoring measurement method based on their GPMP drivers’ implementation status. Finally, the study employed a quantitative fuzzy decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory model (DEMATEL) to examine the interdependent cause-and-effect connections among the different green port drivers. The study reveals that Singapore is rated highest in green port implementation practices while the Port of Male (Maldives) was classified lowest among 12 Asian ports. Besides, Pollution Control Measures are the most significant driver having the highest influence on all drivers. Automation and digitalization have the most significant causal influence on all the drivers of GPMP, followed by environmental incentives and penalty pricing.