Major League Research Articles

Correlation of Joint Space Widening on Valgus Stress Magnetic Resonance Imaging With Level of Play and Innings Pitched in Professional Pitchers.

Previous studies have described various techniques and confirmed the clinical utility of valgus stress radiography and stress ultrasound in overhead athletes. The addition of valgus stress and a high-resolution anatomic assessment of the elbow with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the active throwing position (flexed elbow valgus external rotation [FEVER] view) can add valuable diagnostic or prognostic information in throwing athletes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate findings on MRI and subsequent performance in professional throwing athletes. It was hypothesized that joint space widening in the FEVER view would be predictive of performance and the risk of subsequent injuries. Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. All pitchers on 2 Major League Baseball teams who consented to participate during their preseason screening in 2019 and 2020 underwent standard and FEVER MRI, and performance data from the following season were recorded, including injuries, mean throwing velocity, number of innings pitched, strikeout percentage, walk percentage, weighted on-base average, and level of play reached (not signed, minor league, or major league). Categorical variables were compared using the Fisher exact test or chi-square test, and continuous variables were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test, as appropriate. Ordered logistic regression was used to determine the independent factors predicting performance. A total of 91 players underwent preseason imaging, and all players had subsequent performance data available. Multivariate analysis revealed that when controlling for age, mean velocity, history of injuries, presence of symptoms, and history of ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction, increased absolute joint space widening was predictive of a lower level of play (β = -0.63; P = .042). Univariate analysis demonstrated a significant correlation between relative joint space widening and level of play reached (β = -0.54; P = .034). Relative joint space widening remained a significant predictor of level of play (β = -0.87; P = .012) on multivariate analysis. Multivariate analysis also showed that both absolute joint space widening (β = -13.50; P = .012) and relative joint space widening (β = -13.60; P = .026) were predictive of the number of innings pitched in the subsequent season. The present study demonstrates that findings on MRI with valgus stress correlated with the level of play reached and number of innings pitched in professional throwing athletes.

Re-Evaluating the Role of Attendance on Home Advantage: Evidence From an International Rugby Tournament

Abstract: Home advantage has been documented in many sports. It is hypothesized that higher attendance, likely dominated by home-team supporters, can be a source of this advantage, either through influence on match officials or by spurring the home team to greater efforts relative to the away team. We examine this latter hypothesis using a dataset of 1,030 matches over eight seasons, 2012/2013 to 2019/2020, of the Pro14, one of the three major European rugby union leagues. Our results initially display strong evidence of home advantage. However, once we control for team quality, home advantage is significantly reduced. Further, our results also indicate that home advantage is not explained by the impact of attendances on team performance (effort).

Pay and Performance in Men’s and Women’s Football: Comparing the MLS and NWSL

Abstract: The purpose of this research is two-fold; first, to assess whether men and women football players “perform the same work,” as required for wage discrimination, and second, to compare pay and performance for men and women players in the top professional soccer leagues in the US. We utilize data from Major League Soccer and the National Women’s Soccer League over the period 2016 through 2019 to compare how performance translates into team success in the two leagues and to forecast the salaries of women players for comparison with the men. Our results show that the determinants of win production are the same for the men’s and women’s teams, indicating that men and women do similar work. Additionally, the average woman player would earn more than the average male player if performance were compensated the same way in both leagues for the same number of games.

Evaluating plate discipline in Major League Baseball with Bayesian Additive Regression Trees

Abstract We introduce a three-step framework to determine at which pitches Major League batters should swing. Unlike traditional plate discipline metrics, which implicitly assume that all batters should always swing at (resp. take) pitches inside (resp. outside) the strike zone, our approach explicitly accounts not only for the players and umpires involved in the pitch but also in-game contextual information like the number of outs, the count, baserunners, and score. We first fit flexible Bayesian nonparametric models to estimate (i) the probability that the pitch is called a strike if the batter takes the pitch; (ii) the probability that the batter makes contact if he swings; and (iii) the number of runs the batting team is expected to score following each pitch outcome (e.g. swing and miss, take a called strike, etc.). We then combine these intermediate estimates to determine whether swinging increases the batting team’s run expectancy. Our approach enables natural uncertainty propagation so that we can not only determine the optimal swing/take decision but also quantify our confidence in that decision. We illustrate our framework using a case study of pitches faced by Mike Trout in 2019.

Smoothed Dirichlet Distribution

When the cells are ordinal in the multinomial distribution, i.e., when cells have a natural ordering, guaranteeing that the borrowing information among neighboring cells makes sense conceptually. In this paper, we introduce a novel probability distribution for borrowing information among neighboring cells in order to provide reliable estimates for cell probabilities. The proposed smoothed Dirichlet distribution forces the probabilities of neighboring cells to be closer to each other than under the standard Dirichlet distribution. Basic properties of the proposed distribution, including normalizing constant, moments, and marginal distributions, are developed. Sample generation of smoothed Dirichlet distribution is discussed using the acceptance-rejection algorithm. We demonstrate the performance of the proposed smoothed Dirichlet distribution using 2018 Major League Baseball (MLB) batters data.

Own goal or home run? Exploring the implementation of virtual reality training in football and baseball organisations

PurposeDespite the perceived benefits of implementing virtual reality (VR) training in elite sport, arguably the most important element – the perceptions of practitioners – has been largely understudied. Therefore, the present study aims to explore practitioners' perceptions of VR training in elite football and baseball, with a focus on the important factors, obstacles, perceived knowledge and practical use of the technology.Design/methodology/approachA quantitative approach measuring practitioner perceptions via an online questionnaire was adopted. Football respondents (n = 25) represented practitioners from major football leagues across the world, and baseball respondents (n = 15) represented practitioners from Major League Baseball.FindingsBoth football and baseball respondents reported that the most important factor for implementation of VR training was improvement in on-field performance (technical and tactical); whilst cost was viewed as the biggest obstacle. Both football and baseball respondents also noted that the most likely group to receive VR training would be injured and rehabilitating athletes. Mann–Whitney U tests revealed that football respondents perceived coach (p = 0.02) and executive approval (p < 0.001) as significantly greater obstacles than baseball respondents.Originality/valueThis research provides novel and invaluable information for stakeholders within VR regarding what the elite organisations of different sports perceive as the most important factors for implementation, as well as greatest obstacles preventing use. This information should guide future development and marketing of VR training systems in sport.

Major League Baseball Seized Control of the Minor Leagues: What Happened, What's Happening Now, and What it Means for Players, Fans, Owners, and Cities

Major League Baseball Seized Control of the Minor Leagues: What Happened, What's Happening Now, and What it Means for Players, Fans, Owners, and Cities

"A Year Probably Never Before Equaled . . .": The Klein Chocolate Company Team and its Nine-Game Major League Run of 1919

"A Year Probably Never Before Equaled . . .": The Klein Chocolate Company Team and its Nine-Game Major League Run of 1919

Hamstring Strain Injury Prevention: Current Beliefs And Practices Of Practitioners Working In Major League Baseball

Hamstring Strain Injury Prevention: Current Beliefs And Practices Of Practitioners Working In Major League Baseball

Impacts of rule changes on the MLS SuperDraft

During the period of 2006–2008 Major League Soccer made a series of rule changes regarding roster structures and how clubs obtained players. These changes include: creating Designated Player roster spots, increasing the number of international roster spots, and allowing clubs to sign players from their academies. This work examines the impact of those rule changes on the MLS careers of players selected in the MLS SuperDraft. Statistical methods to compare two groups and regression models are used to examine possible impacts. There is a significant decrease in the probability of players selected after the rule changes going on to play competitive games in MLS. These results may impact how clubs choose to allocate resources for player recruitment.

Characteristics Associated With Noncompliance of Current Pitch Smart Guidelines in High School Baseball Pitchers Throughout the United States.

Although pitch count and rest guidelines have been promoted for youth and adolescent baseball players for nearly 2 decades, compliance with guidelines remains poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of compliance with Major League Baseball (MLB) Pitch Smart guidelines as well as the association between compliance and range of motion (ROM), strength, velocity, injury, and pitcher utilization. It was hypothesized that pitchers in violation of current recommendations would have increased strength, velocity, and injury. Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. This was a prospective, multicenter study of 115 high school pitchers throughout the United States. Pitchers were surveyed about their compliance with current off-season, rest-related guidelines, and history of injury. During the preseason, pitchers underwent standardized physical examinations, and pitch velocity was measured. Pitch counts were collected during the baseball season that followed. Dynamometer strength testing of shoulder forward flexion, and external rotation as well as grip strength was recorded. We compared pitchers who were compliant with recommendations with those who were noncompliant using Student t and Mann-Whitney U tests. Based on preseason data, 84% of pitchers had violated current Pitch Smart guidelines. During the season, 14% had at least 1 violation of the Pitch Smart guidelines. Across both the preseason survey and in-season pitch counts, 89% of players had at least 1 violation of the Pitch Smart guidelines. While there were no significant differences in ROM or strength, the noncompliant group had higher maximum pitch velocity than the compliant group (74 ± 8 vs 69 ± 5 mph [119 ± 13 vs 111 ± 8 kph], respectively; P = .009). Players' self-reported velocity differed significantly from the direct measurement, for both peak velocity (80 ± 6 vs 73 ± 8 mph [129 ± 9 vs 117 ± 13 kph], respectively; P < .001) and mean velocity (73 ± 8 vs 53 ± 27 mph [117 ± 13 vs 85 ± 43 kph], respectively; P < .001). Most high school pitchers were not fully compliant with current Pitch Smart guidelines, and they tended to overestimate their peak velocity by 7 mph (11 kph). Pitchers who threw with greater velocity were at higher risk for violating Pitch Smart recommendations.

Dispersion and persistence in the competitive balance of North American major leagues 1960–2019

PurposeThis paper focuses on the proliferation of empirical measures of competitive balance arising from its multi-dimensionality (i.e. win dispersion versus performance persistence), and the increasing complexity and specificity of league structures. This has led to significant inconsistencies in the assessments of competitive balance, rendering it difficult to derive policy recommendations.Design/methodology/approachThe authors extend previous empirical studies of the four North American major leagues (i.e. MLB, NFL, NBA and NHL) using six competitive balance measures to (1) compare changes in competitive balance over the period 1960–2019; (2) to investigate the degree to which win dispersion and performance persistence move in the same direction; and (3) to explore the extent to which competitive balance has changed across facility construction eras and regulatory regimes.FindingsThe authors find that the assessment of competitive balance is both metric-dependent and time-dependent, reinforcing the importance of using a portfolio of measures rather than a single metric. The findings also highlight the importance of understanding the dispersion-persistence relationship.Originality/valueThe authors stress that leagues must be aware of a potential dispersion-persistence trade-off when intervening to improve competitive balance.

Hamstring Strain Injury Prevention: Current Beliefs and Practices of Practitioners Working in Major League Baseball.

Hamstring strain injury (HSI) is the most frequently sustained injury in Major League Baseball (MLB). However, the beliefs and practices of practitioners working in MLB regarding HSI risk factors and prevention strategies in baseball athletes have not been documented. To document the current beliefs and practices of practitioners working in MLB regarding HSI prevention. Cross-sectional study. Major League Baseball via an online survey. Athletic trainers, physical therapists, and strength and conditioning coaches working in MLB during the 2021 season. An online survey was conducted, with participants completing the survey once. Questions pertained to risk factor identification, the use and perceived effectiveness of prevention strategies, and barriers to implementation. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each question. A total of 91 responses were received featuring respondents from 28 of 30 MLB organizations. The perceived most important intrinsic risk factors were tolerance to high-speed running for first-time HSI and previous HSI for recurrent injury. The perceived most important extrinsic risk factor for both first-time and recurrent HSI was internal communication between staff. The perceived most effective prevention strategies were managing overall workload, regular exposure to high-speed running, and periodization. The most used prevention strategies were core or lumbopelvic strengthening, traditional resistance-training exercises, and managing overall workload. Approximately half (53%) of respondents reported barriers to effective implementation of HSI prevention strategies, including player and coach buy-in, compliance, workload management, and scheduling. This was the first survey to investigate MLB practitioner beliefs and practices regarding HSI prevention. Responses from practitioners regarding their beliefs about risk factors and appropriate prevention strategies varied, and discrepancies existed between the perceived most effective strategies and those most frequently used.

Is Labor in Sport a Commodity? The Case of American and Japanese Professional Baseball

An important rule that underpins international and domestic labor law is the principle that labor is not a commodity. This principle has interesting application to the labor regulation in professional team sports such as baseball that utilize drafts, salary restraints, the reserve system, and free agency. The article will examine whether these and other labor controls in Major League Baseball in the United States and Nippon Professional Baseball League in Japan commodify labor. Baseball’s labor controls and practices will be assessed to determine if labor is treated as a commodity, and if so, whether there is undue commodification. In doing so, a construct will be created of labor practices that commodify labor on a spectrum. These labor practices and controls will also be evaluated in the context of antitrust law and restraint of trade. The article concludes by suggesting ways to improve the treatment of players that will decommodify labor.

The Jackie Robinson Dynamic for African-American Faculty at the Most Prestigious and Elite Predominately White Institutions (PWIs) that Teach Cybersecurity and Technology

Abstract The incredible strength and bravery of Jackie Robinson in breaking the color barrier in Major League Baseball is remembered and admired by many. However, the difficulty of his journey is often underestimated. As the Black Lives Matter movement has become more prominent, African-American faculty members at Predominately White Institutions (PWIs) face their own trials similar to Robinson’s. The need for psychological safety in the workplace from their colleagues and organizational leadership has never been more critical. They experience isolation, alienation, and inequality as faculty and potential professionals in cybersecurity and technology fields. This paper explores those dynamics through the concept of Jackie Robinson’s journey.

Is Workload Associated With Internal Impingement in Professional Baseball Pitchers? An Analysis of Days of Rest, Innings Pitched, and Batters Faced.

Internal impingement is a common cause of shoulder pain and dysfunction in baseball pitchers. The purpose of this study was to determine if the amount of rest days between outings, the number of innings pitched in each outing, and the number of batters faced in each outing are risk factors for internal impingement in professional baseball pitchers. It was hypothesized that a higher workload would significantly increase a pitcher's risk of developing internal impingement. Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. All professional (Major and Minor League) baseball pitchers who were diagnosed with internal impingement between 2011 and 2017 were identified using the Major League Baseball's Health and Injury Tracking System. A separate player usage data set was used to determine workload. The authors compared workload variables (days of rest, innings pitched, and batters faced per game) between each of 4 injury-exposure groups (pitchers with documented internal impingement <2, <6, <12, and >12 weeks after a game) and a control group of pitchers with no internal impingement using Student t tests or Mann-Whitney U tests. In a within-pitcher paired analysis of the injury groups, the workload variables during 3 acute periods (<2, <6, and <12 weeks preinjury) were compared with the baseline values (>12 weeks preinjury). Overall, there were 624 professional baseball pitchers diagnosed with internal impingement during the study period. Compared with pitcher games (n = 213,964), pitchers in all 4 injury-exposure groups had significantly more innings pitched per game (P ≤ .003 for all) and faced significantly more batters per game (P < .001 for all). There were significantly more starting pitchers in each of the injury-exposure groups when compared with the controls (P < .001 for all). However, when comparing acute and baseline workloads in the pitchers diagnosed with internal impingement, there were no significant differences in the number of innings pitched, batters faced, or days of rest. This analysis revealed significantly greater pitcher workload and percentage of starting pitchers in professional baseball players diagnosed with internal impingement when compared with healthy controls. However, this injury did not seem to be associated with an acute increase in workload.

Firm Behavior Under Conditions of Final Offer Arbitration: An Empirical Analysis of Major League Baseball’s Salary Negotiation Structure

Abstract: This paper explores the use of final offer interest arbitration (FOA) in Major League Baseball (MLB) and whether arbitrated salaries differ meaningfully from private settlements. MLB provides an excellent environment to analyze FOA because it is common practice for eligible players and their teams to announce official intended arbitration figures well in advance of hearings but ultimately privately negotiate a contract in the interim. This allows for consideration of the bounded arbitrated salary environment even when a hearing is avoided. Results reaffirm the findings of Burgess and Marburger (1993), which suggested that arbitrated salaries are of “low quality” in that the distribution range is wider for arbitration compared to private negotiation. Second, this paper contributes to existing literature by expanding analysis to including quantile regression, which indicates that not only is contract length positively correlated with players’ salaries but also statistically significant differences in this effect exist throughout the distribution.

“It’s still Cleveland baseball”

In the summer of 2021, Cleveland’s Major League Baseball franchise announced the rebranding of the club’s nickname from the decades-long controversial “Indians” to the” Guardians.” The long-standing use of Native American imagery in sport has long been the source of contention, and for this reason, the Cleveland Guardians have continually been in the public eye prior to their rebrand. This article examines both the organization’s rebranding efforts and media coverage surrounding the team’s new identity. Guided by the theory of framing, this study applies themes of sports rebranding to analyze the team’s announcement video and sequentially deploys an inductive approach to identify the media frames present following the rebranding. Three sports rebrand frames were identified from the Cleveland Guardians’ announcement: regional pride, nostalgia, and rebirth. The media response looked at 79 articles and found two higher-order frames - broader movements and branding commentary – with six subcategories. In total, these frames indicated that rebranding efforts sought to center the new identity around the city of Cleveland while deemphasizing damages from the use of derogatory racial Native American imagery. The media response also shows that the rebrand is contextualized through broader movements and is politically contentious. Future directions of framing theory in sports rebranding and the discourse around the use and removal of racial imagery in sports is discussed.

Meniscal Injuries Are Decreasing but Are Increasingly Being Treated Surgically With Excellent Return to Play Rates in Professional Baseball Players

The purposes of this study were to determine the incidence and key characteristics of meniscus injuries in professional baseball players, assess current treatment strategies, determine the return to play rates at any level (RTP) and at the same level (RSL), and identify prognostic factors that predict injury severity. After approval from the Major League Baseball (MLB) Research Committee and our institutional review board, the MLB Health and Injury Tracking System was used to identify meniscus injuries occurring across MLB and Minor League Baseball (MiLB) from 2011 to 2017. Analyzed injuries occurred during normal baseball activity in a player who was active on an MLB or MiLB roster and resulted in at least 1 day missed. A total of 293 professional baseball players sustained 314 meniscus injuries from 2011 to 2017 (7 years) for a mean of 44.9 injuries/y. Pitchers were the most injured position (31.8%), followed by infielders (26.4%). Catchers and infielders missed the most median number of days (50 days). When comparing injuries to landing leg vs push-off leg in pitchers, injury to the push-off leg resulted in significantly more days missed per injury compared to the lead leg (59.6 vs 39.9 days, P= .048). Overall, RTP was 93.0%, while RSL was 84.4%. Over 7 professional baseball seasons, 314 meniscus injuries occurred in 293 players. Pitchers and catchers were most injured, and overall, the number of meniscal injuries per year declined while the percentage of injuries that required surgery increased over time. High rates of RTP were observed. Level IV, therapeutic case series.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection Increases the Risk of Muscle Injury in Professional Male Soccer Players-A Retrospective Analysis of the Italian and Spanish Major Leagues.

A retrospective cohort study on professional soccer players from the Serie A and LaLiga was conducted to investigate the correlation between SARS-CoV-2 infection and muscle injuries. Players were divided into two groups based on whether they contracted the SARS-CoV-2 infection (C+) or not (C-) during the 2020/2021 season. In the 2019-2020 season, both championships showed a similar number of muscular injuries (MI) between C+ and C- (Serie A: p = 0.194; 95% CI: -0.044 to 0.215, LaLiga p = 0.915; 95% CI: -0.123 to 0.137). In the 2020-2021 season, C+ had a significantly higher number of MI compared to C- in both championships (Serie A: p < 0.05; 95% CI 0.731 to 1.038; LaLiga: p < 0.05; 95% CI: 0.773 to 1.054). Multiple linear regression analysis confirmed that belonging to C+ in the season 2020/2021 was the variable that most strongly influenced the probability of having a muscle injury. Survival analysis revealed a hazard ratio of 3.73 (95% CI 3.018 to 4.628) and of 5.14 (95% CI 3.200 to 8.254) for Serie A and LaLiga respectively. We found an association between SARS-CoV-2 infection and increased risk of muscle injury, emphasizing the importance of carefully considering the infection in the decision-making process for returning to sport. Therefore, SARS-CoV-2 infection should be judged as a real injury requiring specific assessment and training programs.