Main Cereal Crops Research Articles

The Economic Influences of Loss of Production and Marketing of Yellow Corn Crop in Iraq (Babil Province; a Case Study)

"The agricultural sector in Iraq suffers from the phenomenon of increasing losses in the main cereal crops, including yellow corn, and the low percentage of the Industrialized from them, due to a set of internal and external factors surrounding these crops during the chain of production and marketing processes that these crops go through, among these factors are what can be controlled others can not be controlled, making the crop at the pity of all these factors combined. This is a waste of the resources that were used in their production, in addition to the losses incurred by producers of these crops. The research aimed to estimate the economic effects of the loss of the yellow corn crop in Babil province by selecting a random sample of farmers and marketers of the crop and designing a special questionnaire form for each type of these producers. The results showed that the total lost quantities of the maize crop at the province level amounted to about 34 thousand tons, resulting in total financial losses of about 10 billion Iraqi dinars, as it was possible to benefit from them at the province level generally in establishing complementary or competitive projects meet the growing needs of consumers and benefit producers in the province. The lost areas as a result of the production loss amounted to about 6504 dunums, which could have been used to grow other crops or to expand the cultivation of the existing crop. Accordingly, the research recommended the necessity for agricultural extension agencies to take their role in holding educational seminars for farmers, which feed into the services needed by the crop and introduce them to the different types of loss and ways to reduce it and reduce waste in scarce productive resources, which has the effect of increasing production rates.."

Genetic yield improvement forecast and water-limited productivity of significant agricultural crops

In the next 4 decades, when growth of this segment, feed, and biofuel feedstock is expected to stabilize, improve crop yields under potential (Yp) as well as water scarcity (Yw) conditions will be important to enhancing food security. To meet predicted demand in 2050, the three main cereal crops (cereals, maize, and rice) will require 1.16-1.31% yearly increase in Yp and Yw. They may fall much more if current absolute yield increase rates continue steady, or if recent indicators of agricultural production halting in certain parts of the world become widespread. There are a variety of methods for increasing Yp and Yw genetic improvement rates, including photosynthetic genetic engineering, above-ground awareness and high design, and boosting root levels of water uptake. Because time is limited, the time scales required to progress potentially advantageous features to field prototype system, farmer-ready cultivars, and widespread farmer adoption are given special attention. The value of molecular breeding methods as tools for improving fundamental and complicated genetic features is highlighted. Only a small percentage of useful features are integrated into the breeding process, and information is not widely shared between research teams. Increasing financing for targeted research, as well as identifying and removing or decreasing roadblocks at different stages of the concept to farmer-ready cultivar chain, might help to accelerate the exploitation of these prospects. Possible genetic advances in Yp or Yw, such as using hybrid vigor in rice or genetically engineering photosynthesis, are unlikely to alter this prognosis. No amount of optimism can hide the reality that without sustained investment in genetic improvement and breeding aids, unfulfilled demand for grains in 2050 will be much higher.

Exploring the Rooting Behaviour of BRRI (Bangladesh Rice Research Institute) Rice Cultivars

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the main staple cereal crops for half of the world’s population which is predicted to exceed 9 billion by the 2050. Rice production needs to be doubled to meet the future demand of rice eating countries. To ensure the food security of growing population, sustainable rice production is needed. To achieve the expected yield, better understanding of the rice root systems will be required. A panel of rice cultivars, collected from Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) were assessed through two established screening methods. Deep and shallow rooted cultivars were identified through hydroponic screening and soil filled rhizotron method. In hydroponic screening method, one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed 99.13% variation explained by the genotype (P < 0.001). At the same time, ANOVA revealed 73.37% variation explained by the genotype in soil filled glass rhizotron method (P < 0.001). When comparing the data of root traits obtained from hydroponic and rhizotron experiments, 4 cultivars were identified as deep rooted cultivars, which would be very promising cultivars for rice breeding programmes in drought prone regions.

Technical feasibility of using suboptimal irrigation in maize cropping

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the main cereal crops grown around the world and is widely used as food, feed and raw material in various industries. However, the crop is sensitive to weather conditions, and this causes large variations in yield between crop seasons. Suboptimal irrigation can be used to secure reasonable yields with increased water productivity. For maize grown offseason in the Cerrado biome of Brazil, there is little knowledge about the benefits of suboptimal irrigation. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of different irrigation amounts and two Brachiaria cultivars intercropped with maize on maize grain yield, biomass production for silage and water productivity in the second crop season. The study was conducted at Embrapa Milho e Sorgo Experimental Station, Sete Lagoas, MG, Brazil, in 2018 and 2019. Six irrigation levels were obtained by using a line-source sprinkler irrigation system. The irrigation levels used ranged from 94% to 11% of the cumulative reference evapotranspiration (ET0) in 2018, and from 90% to 34% of ET0 in 2019. Suboptimal irrigation above a certain level did not cause a significant decrease in silage biomass (59% and 71% of the ET0, in 2018 and 2019, respectively) and grain productivity (48% and 60% of the ET0, in 2018 and 2019, respectively). Additionally, there was an increase in crop water productivity and irrigation water productivity, for biomass of both silage and grains. The results demonstrate the potential of suboptimal irrigation as a strategy to reduce water resource usage while maintaining acceptable productivity levels.

Cluster and Principal Component Analysis of Semi-Dwarf Tef [&lt;i&gt;Eragrostis tef&lt;/i&gt; (Zucc.) Trotter] Recombinant Inbred Lines with Emphasis to Lodging

Tef is the main cereal crop widely produced and consumed in Ethiopia and preferred by millions of local smallholder farmers. It also gained recognition as a food crop in other parts of the world very recently due to its gluten-free grains and its nutritive value. Lodging is the major factor which greatly reduces both yields and quality of tef grain as well as the straw. The current study was conducted to group the lines as their similarities and assess the magnitude of genetic distances among them; then identify the contribution of individual traits for total variations. A total of 49 lines were evaluated for 16 traits using simple lattice design at Holetta and Debre Zeit in 2017 main rainy season. All the traits evaluated over the locations showed highly significant differences among the lines except fertile tiller per plant, while the lines x location interaction effect was highly significant for most of the traits evaluated. Cluster analysis grouped the lines into four clusters based on their similarity. The highest inter-cluster distance noted between clusters two and four while the lowest was between clusters one and four. Principal component analysis showed that about 77.6% of the gross variance among lines explained by five Principal components with eigenvalues greater than unity. This study revealed that four recombinant inbred lines had higher yield than local and standard checks. RIL# 14 showed highest grain yield, low lodging index and other desirable traits than all lines, which could base and strengthen future tef breeding if incorporated as plant material; especially for lodging problem.

Review on: The Effect NPS Fertilizer Rate on Phenology, Growth and Yield Parameters of Food Barley (&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Hordeum vulgare&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; L.)

Barley is one of the popular crops cultivated since ancient time in the world. Barley is one of the main cereal crops produced in the World and it is one of the most ancient crops among cereals and has played a significant role in the development of agriculture in the world. It is commonly used for food, animal feed and beverage value. The most important factors that reduce yield of barley is poor soil fertility, blanket recommendation of fertilizers, soil acidity (low soil pH), diseases and insects, poor crop management practices. The main objective of this paper is to review the effect of NPS fertilizer rates on food barley yield and yield components. Balanced fertilization is the key to sustainable crop production and maintenance of soil health. The yield of crop is depending upon the combined effect of many factors. Among these factors, the production and productivity is declining from time to time because of lack of combined application of input like recommended amount of fertilizers and management practices. Based on the review on the effect NPS fertilizer rate on phenology, growth and yield parameters of food barley. It has both economic and environmental consideration. The application of NPS fertilizer rates shows significant effect on growth, yield and yield components of food barley. It influence on the phonological, vegetative growth, yield and yield related parameters. Days to 50%heading, days to 90% maturity, spike length and number of tiller per plant were significantly affected by the NPS fertilizer rate. Then we should or need to focus on micro nutrients that are considered useless by farmers as well as researchers because those micro nutrients deficiency today shows clinical symptoms at human beings especially on children and infant women. Fertilizer suppliers or cooperative unions should pay attention to supply or blended type of the fertilizer instead of supplying single elements, the fact that the government and recognized researchers should give due attention to blended fertilizer to increase production of food Barley.

ESTIMATING AND ANALYZING THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF SOME CASH CEREAL CROPS IN IRAQ AND EGYPT FOR THE PERIOD 1995-2016

This study aims to estimating and analyzing the factors affecting the production and productivity of the main cereal crops in Iraq and Egypt at the period 1995-2016, which are characterized with low production. Three crops were selected, which are wheat, barley and rice. The research was based on a hypothesis that there is a deterioration in the production of the three crops due to some factors that hamper the development of crops production for the period 1995-2016. To verify the hypothesis, the methodology used linking two directions, the descriptive method which depended on the previous studies dealing with the same topic and the quantitative method based on the standard economics methods and techniques. The two stages normal least squares method was used and then interpreting the results of the quantitative method to evaluate the theoretical aspect of the study depending on the economic theory concept. Important conclusions were reached, including: agriculture in Iraq and Egypt is subjected to several limitations with varying effects on its growth. Also, the research reached the important result: the level of the economic agricultural exposure has a negative impact on the quantities of rice produced in Iraq and Egypt, and the researcher recommended adopting a pricing policy that contributes to the product protection and making the local prices of the crops in question approximately the same international prices.

Wheat varietal identification study using common quality and disease PCR markers

The main vital cereal crop in Mongolia is wheat (Triticum spp .). There are more than 10000 wheat varieties are released and registered in the world wheat atlas up to the date. Internationally, wheat varieties are identified by their genotypes. However, local wheat varieties are being identified only by its phenotypic traits in Mongolia. Not significant study was carried out on wheat varietal identification. In this study, we aim to differentiate widely planting 6 local wheat varieties Darkhan-34, Darkhan-131, Darkhan-144, Darkhan-166, Tsogt and Khalkh-gol-1 using PCR based common quality and disease 22 markers. As a result, 10 out of 22 markers were detected in all wheat varieties in distinct sizes, 8 markers detected otherwise and 4 markers was not detected at all. Thus, the ZSBy9 marker which is specific marker to distinguish Darkhan-144, ZSBy8 primer which is specific marker to distinguish Khalkh gol-1, GluA1c and GluB1 Bx642 markers those are specific markers to distinguish Tsogt variety from other studied varieties respectively.

Temporal trends of sulfur levels in soils of northwestOhio(USA) between 2002 and 2014

AbstractSulfur (S) is an essential nutrient for plant growth. Despite increasing reports of yield responses of crops to S fertilization, there is limited information about changes in the soil test concentrations of S. This study used a soil chemical analysis dataset from 2002 to 2014 to evaluate changes in soil S and other nutrient levels. The soil‐test database comprised 8,428 topsoil samples (0–20 cm depth layer) collected from 143 farm fields located in the northwest (NW) Ohio counties of Defiance, Paulding, and Williams. Except for S, the database showed no significant changes in soil chemical properties from NW Ohio between 2002 and 2014. Soil sulfate (SO42−) levels have linearly decreased by 63% from 2002 to 2014, reaching the range of concentration considered deficient for the main cereal crops. With no changes in soil organic matter (SOM) and pH, this result was attributed primarily to enactment of air quality regulations, since soil SO42−decreases were directly correlated with the reductions of SO2emissions (−70%), SO42−in rainwater (−66%) and deposited (−52%) in NW Ohio between the years of 2002–2013. Furthermore, combined increasing crop yields and insufficient compensation by fertilization had role on decreasing soil SO42−levels. Current fertilization practices and wet deposition of S have not been sufficient to balance S removals from soil leading to the declines in the soil test S levels. It is imperative to paid more attention to practices that maintain soil S fertility levels to avoid yield penalties associated with soil S deficiencies.

Whither the enigma of soil nitrogen balance sheets?

The enigma of soil nitrogen balance sheets originally described by Allison in 1955 has endured for 65 years. Originally the accounting showed a positive balance between N gains and losses, which indicated a failure to measure all losses, widely suspected of being gaseous N emissions. Measurement of organic, inorganic and gaseous N forms derived from 15N-enriched nitrate added to soils under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions in small- to medium-scale short-term experiments in closed vessels without plants, demonstrated that it is possible to achieve a complete 15N balance. A recent partial N balance at the global scale of the three main cereal crops over a 50-year time span showed a negative balance between N gains and losses, indicating a failure to measure all N gains or to accurately measure net changes in total soil N to a sufficient soil depth. Therefore, if the enigma is to be resolved in a realistic agronomic setting, fundamental decisions need to be made regarding the approach to be adopted, the cereal crop to be studied, the nature of the measurements required and their temporal and spatial scales.

A case study of climate-smart management in foxtail millet (Setaria italica) production under future climate change in Lishu county of Jilin, China

In China, foxtail millet (Setaria italica) is one of the main cereal crops. Due to its rich nutrition, foxtail millet has also been widely used as Traditional Chinese Medicine in dietary therapy. The spatial distribution of foxtail millet production plays an important role in domestic cropping pattern. Cropping pattern needs to be continually adjusted in order to combat ongoing climate change in China. Such adjustments could greatly affect national foxtail millet production. Under future climate scenarios, adopting climate-smart management has become the general trend to achieve a high and stable foxtail millet production. In this case study, we used DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer) to assess the potential impacts of future climate change on foxtail millet production in Lishu county of Jilin province in Northeast China. According to these potential impacts, we proposed corresponding measures to adapt local foxtail millet production to future climate change. As compared to the base period (1988–2018), foxtail millet grain yield in Lishu county would change by 15.3% (-8.9%) during the 2020s, -8.8% (-10.5%) during the 2030s, -17.7% (0.4%) during the 2040s, and -25.0% (-18.3%) during the 2050s under RCP4.5 (RCP8.5). Under future climate scenarios, climate-smart management (e.g., adjusting sowing date, supplementing irrigation) could partially offset the adverse impact of climate change on foxtail millet yield. However, adopting climate-smart management alone may only provide temporary relief to the potential stresses local foxtail millet production could be facing. In order to achieve a high and stable foxtail millet yield in the future, we suggest local producers adopt new varieties in addition to using climate-smart management.

Inventarisasi Plasma Nutfah Serealia Lahan Kering Di Sekitar Kawasan Taman Nasional Kelimutu

The goal of this research was to identify the dryland cereal crop seed plasma types growing around Kelimutu National Park, located in Ende district on the island of Flores in Indonesia, by observing crop morphology and cultivation techniques. Cereal crops represent the largest source of carbohydrates in the regional diet in comparison to other food groups in this area where dry land makes up 80% of the total available land. It is estimated that the Ende district of Flores has adequate potential to produce dryland cereal as a staple food crop. Previous studies have shown that farmer preference is shifting towards the cultivation of crops with a higher economic value which threatens the existence of some cereal crops. Concurrently, shifts in eating habits have made rice a staple food in this region, leading to increased consumption and threatening the existence of other cereal crops. Furthermore, outsiders tend to think of areas like Flores as being impoverished, with frequent problems with food security. Currently, there is a lack of knowledge within the youth population about the types of foods, especially cereals, which are rich in nutrients and their use in rituals. This research aims to address this gap by collecting information on cereal crops in and around Kelimutu National Park for dissemination through educational and cultural tours. This study was conducted in the eastern subdistrict of Ndona, Flores and Wolojita Detusoko between June and December 2011. Study findings identified 5 main cereal crops: paddy fields (consisting of: Are Rumba, Are Sela, Are Obo, Are Laka, Amera, Eko Ndale, Kea Ria, Are Mera, Are Kea Mboa, Eko Ena), corn (consisting of Java Roga, Nggela Java, Java, Keo Ri’a), sorghum (consisting of mera Lolo, Lolo Mite and Lolo Telo Leko), barley (consisting of Mera and Wete Wete Bara) and millet (consisting of Ke’o Mite and Ke’o). Of the five types of cereal crops identified, one type (Pega, a subspecies of barley with a sorghum-like panicle) is not found in four of the districts. It was found that corn, classified as a native plant, is strengthened through cultivation by re-seeding. Study results illustrated that corn in this area is of reduced genetic quality, as illustrated by the fact that 3-4 cobs did not develop. Alternatively, the Ke’o Bara strain of barley has a morphology and panicle strand number (270-300) that suggest that this species is typical of this region.

Total Factor Productivity and Environmental Efficiency of the Most Important Cereals Crops in Egypt

Purpose of the Study: Egyptian agriculture suffers from many problems related to the use of available economic resources, the most important of which is lack of optimal utilization of resources, wasteful use of agricultural production inputs, reduced efficiency of irrigation water use, and the fertility of agricultural lands are deteriorating, in addition to increasing rates of encroachments on agricultural lands and shifting it from agricultural use to other non-agricultural uses, which limits the agricultural sector ability to achieve high growth rates, especially with the increasing global production of biofuels from crops that individuals consume as food, including wheat and corn, which constitutes an explicit threat to Egyptian food and national security.&#x0D; Objectives: The research aimed to:&#x0D; &#x0D; Estimate the changes in the sources and components of the total productivity of the factors for the main cereal crops in Egypt in the presence and absence of carbon dioxide emissions,&#x0D; Environmental impact assessment of changes in the productivity of these crops.&#x0D; &#x0D; Methods: The study applied analytical approaches to measure changes in productivity, as parameter analysis methods are used as methods of the aggregate production function, and non-parameterized methods of estimation, in addition to (Malmquist, 1953) which is one of the most important indicators of measurement changes in productivity and relies on a Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to measure efficiency and changes in TFP productivity and identify the sources of changes in productivity through changes in technical competence and technological change, as the two most important components of the change in total productivity.&#x0D; Results: Wheat Crop: Wheat crop by estimating the change in the different efficiencies of the wheat crop with co2 emissions, it was clear that a decrease in technological change (TC) during the study period, and thus a decrease in the average change in the total factor productivity (TFP), while without co2 emissions effect, the average change in the total factor productivity of (TFPc) indicates an increase in the actual wheat efficiency which is low due to the environmental impact of the emissions.&#x0D; Rice Crop: Rice crop by estimating the change in the different efficiencies of the rice crop with co2 emissions, it became clear that a decrease in the average technological change (TC), thus increasing the average change in the total factor productivity of the (TFP), whereas, without co2 emissions, it was found that the average change in the total factor productivity of the (TFPc) for the study areas was higher.&#x0D; Summer Maize Crop: It was clear that the average technological change (TC) for the summer maize crop with co2 emissions, decreased during the study period, and therefore a decrease in the average change in the total factor productivity of the (TFP), but without co2, an increase in the annual average of the change in technical efficiency (TEC), and a decrease in the average technological change (TC), i.e. in the use of technology, and an increase in the average change in the total factor productivity (TFPc).

ALLELE FREQUENCY OF GLUTENIN SUBUNITS AND GLU-1 QUALITY SCORES IN SOME TURKISH BREAD WHEAT LANDRACES

There are eight centers of origin for cultivated plants and Turkey is located in the interception of two of these centers, the Near East and the Mediterranean. Therefore, Turkey is known to be the gene center for diversification and dispersion of such main cereal crops such as wheat, barley, rye and oat. This study was performed to determine glutenin gene allele frequencies and Glu-1 quality scores of 116 local wheat landraces of Turkish bread wheat. SDS-PAGE and PCR were used to identify glutenin gene alleles. The results showed that the studied Turkish local wheat landraces contained a total of 19 different subunits (3 subunits in Glu-A1, 11 in Glu-B1 and 5 in Glu-D1) with 50 different combinations. The highest and the lowest allelic combinations were determined in East Anatolia and the Aegean regions, respectively. Glu-A1c (65.11%), Glu-B1b (53.60%) and Glu-D1a (58.30%) were the most frequent alleles. The Glu-1 quality score was found to be 6.07 for the studied genotypes. Among the regions, the highest (7.18) and the lowest (4.80) mean Glu-1 scores were detected in Marmara and Southeastern Anatolia regions, respectively. 4 accessions (TR32846-6, TR36948-1, TR45105 and TR63536) were reported to have the highest Glu-1 quality score as 10. 6 genotypes (TR45398-4, TR48025-3, TR33264-6, TR393-5, TR52021-3 and TR45094) had the quality score of 9. Including more new landraces may contribute to discover new Glu-1 alleles.

Genetic diversity of cereal crops for powdery mildew resistance

Powdery mildew (causal agent Blumeria graminis) is a widespread and harmful fungi disease of cereal crops especially in the regions with humid climate. The pathogen is differentially interacting with plant host genotypes. Growing cereal crop varieties protected with different resistance genes is the most rational, costly and ecologically safe way of combating powdery mildew. The supply of effective genes can be increased due to studies of crop genetic resources collection, introgression of resistance from wild relatives, and also at the expense of mutant forms created with the use of traditional (induced mutagenesis) and biotechnological methods including genome editing. This causes the increasing interest to searching and identifying resistance genes, elucidation of their structural and functional organization, and analysis of molecular mechanisms of the character development. The review summarizes modern information on the identified genes of powdery mildew resistance of the main cereal crops wheat, barley and oat. The list of wheat and barley genes identified at the molecular level is presented. It includes genes encoding NLR and CNL proteins (Pm2, Pm3, TaMla2, TaMla3 genes of wheat, rye Pm8 gene, barley Mla gene), receptor-like proteins (barley Mlo gene), transport proteins and receptor-like kinases (Lr34, Lr67, Pm21 of wheat).

Phosphorus flow analysis in the maize based food-feed-energy systems in China

Phosphorus (P) is an essential and limiting nutrient for agricultural systems, where the demand for agricultural products such as food, feed, and bio-fuel are the major drivers of the intensification of agricultural production systems. Globally, maize is one of three main cereal crops, a main feedstock for animal production and a substrate for the production of bio-ethanol. This study investigated P flows through the multiple utilization systems of maize (as represented by the subsystems of food, feed and energy production) at a crop level of 2016 as reference year and made future predictions of P flows for the year 2030 based on different scenarios for food-feed-energy systems in China. For 2016, the subsystem of animal production resulted in the highest waste of P due to inappropriate manure management, but the subsystem of value-added products (Bio-fuel production, distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), maize-oil) showed the lowest P use efficiency (39%). From the value-added subsystem, 17% of P from the process flow to the subsystem of animal production as DDGS, and 61% of P is wasted associated with wastewater and sludge. Future scenarios of structural adjustments in the maize consumption system predict that the supply of maize for animal feed will be threatened if the policy of the Biofuel National Promotion before 2020 is fully implemented in China, as current maize production will not meet the future demand of food, feed and energy simultaneously. The results emphasized the use of P waste resources and better sludge management from a systems perspective. This also implied the importance of exploring coordinated development and integrated strategies for sustainable P flow management in multiple utilization systems.

Assessment of Main Cereal Crop Trade Impacts on Water and Land Security in Iraq

Growing populations, socio-economic development, the pollution of rivers, and the withdrawal of fresh water are all signs of increasing water scarcity, and with 85% of global use, agriculture is the biggest freshwater user. The water footprint (WF) and virtual water (VW) are concepts used recently for freshwater resources assessment. The WF reflects how much, when and where the water was used whereas VW reveals the volume of water embedded in goods when traded. The first goal of this research is to determine the WF per ton and the WF of production (Mm3/yr) of wheat, barley, rice, and maize in Iraq. The second goal is estimating the quantities of the 4 main cereal crops imported into Iraq and assessing the impact on reducing WF and land savings for 10 years from 2007 to 2016. The results showed that the WF per ton was 1736, 1769, 3694, 2238 m3/ton and the WF of production was 5271, 1475, 997, 820 Mm3/yr for wheat, barley, rice, and maize, respectively. The median total VW imported was 4408 Mm3/yr, the largest volume was 3478 Mm3/yr from wheat, and Iraq saved about 2676 Mm3 of irrigated water and 1,239,539 M ha of land by importing crops every year during 2007–2016. The study revealed the significance of better irrigation management methods to decrease the WF through a selection of crops that need less water and cultivation in rain-fed areas, as well as the use of cereal import to conserve scarce water resources, which is crucial both in terms of water resource management and preservation of the environment. The results of this research could be used as a guideline for better water management practices in Iraq and can provide helpful data for both stakeholders and policymakers.

PROTECTION OF THE SOYBEAN CROP AGROECOSYSTEM THROUGH INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

"Soybean is an important economical crop used for human consumption, animal feed and industrial raw material. Also, soybean is succesfully used in crop roatations with the main cereal crops because it’s biological nitrogen-fixing capabilities. A great diversity of pests and diseases including nematodes, insects and phytopathogenic fungi are known to affect soybean crop. From plant emergence to grain maturity, pests Tetranychus urticae and Etiella zinckenella, pseudofungi Peronospora manshurica and fungi Fusarium sp. and Botrytis cinerea can cause economic damage. In this study was evaluated the influence of tillage systems, different types of fertilizers and pesticide treatments on the most economical important diseases and pests of soybean crop in a field experiment at Agricultural Research and Development Station (ARDS Turda) in the climatic conditions of 2020. Teo TD, an early maturing soybean variety created at ARDS Turda, was used for the experiment. Based on the assessments made, soil tillage system, fertilization and control of pests and diseases have differently influenced the downy mildew and T. urticae attack. To reduce the attack of pathogens in soybean crop, the best technological option is plowing, balanced fertilization and application of fungicides, either without or in combination with an insecticide. The T. urticae populations developed on mineral, organic and green fertilized plants. Integrated control methods must combine agro-technical measures with the application of chemical treatments in accordance with the warning of the appearance of the first adults. "

RESPONSE OF WHEAT PRODUCTIVITY TO IRRIGATION REGIMES AND NITROGEN FERTILIZATION LEVELS

Wheat is the main cereal crop in Egypt. The gap between production and consumption is about 60%. Research efforts are needed to reduce this gap, therefore; the objective of this work was to study the effect of three water regimes as irrigation at 45%, 60% and 70% depletion of the available soil moisture, and three nitrogen fertilization levels on two wheat varieties (Giza 168 and Giza 171).The field experiments were carried out at Bahry El-Methaq region, Alexandria Governorate, Egypt during the two successive winter seasons of 2015/2016 and 2016/2017. The experimental design of the study followed split split plot design (SSPD) with three replicates, keeping two bread wheat cultivars {Giza 168 and Giza 171 } as the main plots, irrigation regimes (irrigation at 45%, 60% and 70% depletion of the available soil moisture) as subplot, and the three fertilization levels as 100%, 80% and 60% from recommended fertilizer rates of nitrogen fertilization common applied as sub-subplot. The results showed that seasonal ET0 was 665.9 mm for the first season and 624.8 for the second season. Wheat crop transpiration was 600.28 mm at 2015-2016 growing season and 572.95 mm for the next season. The seasonal applied irrigation water in total was 2702.2 m3, 2792.6 m3 and 2879.1 m3 at 45%, 60% and 70% depletion treatments for 2015-2016 growing season, respectively. The corresponding values for the next growing season were changed to 2802.5 m3, 2687.4 m3 and 2716.4 m3. Based on the irrigation regimes and water balance by the budget technique, the irrigation events of wheat at 45%, 60% and 70% depletion treatments were 29, 23 and 21, which required irrigating for 23.17, 23.94 and 24.69 hours in the first season, respectively. The second season results changed to 28, 23 and 20 irrigations, which required irrigating for 24.4, 22.96 and 23.29 hours. The results indicated that the maximum grain yield and water use efficiency of wheat regardless of the variety under investigation could be obtained with irrigation at 60% depletion of the available soil moisture and 100% of the recommended nitrogen fertilization. The yield and water use efficiency of Giza 168 under these conditions were 2.78 ton/fed and 1.02 kg/m3. While for Giza 171, 3.4 ton/fed and 1.24 kg/ m3 were obtained with 22.3% and 21.6% increase in yield and water use efficiency, respectively.The results indicated a significant effect of crop cultivars and nitrogen fertilization levels on biological yield, straw yield, grain yield, WUE of grain yield and WUE of straw yield. Meanwhile, irrigation regimes showed insignificant effect on the previous parameters. The interaction of wheat cultivars, nitrogen fertilization levels and irrigation water regime levels showed insignificant effect on biological yield, straw yield, grain yield, WUE of grain yield and WUE of straw yield.

One sea but many routes to Sail. The early maritime dispersal of Neolithic crops from the Aegean to the western Mediterranean

This paper explores the first maritime westward expansion of crops across the Adriatic and the northern coast of the western Mediterranean. Starting in Greece at c.6500 cal BC and following the coastline to the Andalusian region of Spain to c.4500 cal BC, the presence of the main cereal, pulse, oil and fibre crops are recorded from 122 sites. Patterns in the distribution of crops are explored through ubiquity scores, correspondence analysis and Simpson's diversity index. Our findings reveal changes in the frequencies of crops as farming regimes developed in Europe, and show how different crops followed unique trajectories. Fluctuations in the diversity of the crop spectrum between defined areas are also evident, and may serve to illustrate how founder effects can explain some of the patterns evident in large-scale spatio-temporal evaluations. Within the broader westward expansion of farming, regionalism and multi-directional maritime networks described through archaeological materials are also visible in the botanical records.