Macroscopic Change Research Articles

Hydrodynamics and Heat Transfer Characteristics of a Double Gradient Microchannel Porous Model: Fixed Gradients and Variable Gradients Structures

AbstractHydrogen production from fluid fuel catalytic reaction is currently a hot research topic and catalyst carriers are the core of the hydrogen production process. The relationship between variable gradient structure and fixed gradient structure is still unclear. The hydrodynamics and heat transfer characteristics of double gradient and fixed gradient microchannel porous models are investigated. A strategy of using a uniform interpolation method to investigate the laws of a continuity equation is developed. There are three major findings. First, the internal fluid velocity of the variable gradient model is greater than the internal fluid velocity of the fixed gradient model. Second, the overall temperature change of the variable gradient structure is greater than the temperature change of the control group. Third, the formula of the macroscopic average temperature change of the area‐based fluid is found to be theoretically reliable. These findings may contribute to improving the catalytic efficiency of microchannel porous catalytic supports.

Mechanical Chirality of Rotaxanes: Synthesis and Function

Mechanically chiral molecules have attracted considerable attention due to their property and function based on its unique interlocked structure. This review covers the recent advances in the synthesis and function of interlocked rotaxanes with mechanical chirality along with their dynamic and complex stereochemistry. The application of mechanically chiral rotaxanes to control the polymer helical structure is also introduced, where amplification of mechanical chirality appears to cause the macroscopic polymer property change, suggesting the potential applicability of mechanical chirality in polymer systems.

Development of a binary logistic lane change model and its validation using empirical freeway data

An effective macroscopic lane change (LC) model is required to facilitate active and dynamic lane management to develop cell-based multilane macroscopic traffic models. Existing logistic regression LC models do not undertake model classification of lane change; do not consider performance measures in the validation of field data and ignore movement between lanes during time-varying traffic. Models that consider the direction of LC are, however, biased in their prediction of left LC (LLC) and right LC (RLC) direction. This study proposed a simplified macroscopic cell-based binary logistic LC (BLLC) model describing the LC probability using fewer explanatory variables; in this model, the direction of LC is considered as a new variable. Considering the model performance measures, the results show that there exists substantial difference in LC behaviour in both directions. The present model also achieved a smaller difference in the percentage of accurate prediction (0.9%) between the LLC and RLC.

Exploration of Gender-Specific Authorship Disparities in the Pain Medicine Literature

BackgroundGiven the readily increasing membership of the pain physician community, efforts toward correcting notable gender disparities are instrumental. The under-representation of women is particularly prevalent within leadership roles in academic...

A multifunctional shape-morphing elastomer with liquid metal inclusions

Natural soft tissue achieves a rich variety of functionality through a hierarchy of molecular, microscale, and mesoscale structures and ordering. Inspired by such architectures, we introduce a soft, multifunctional composite capable of a unique combination of sensing, mechanically robust electronic connectivity, and active shape morphing. The material is composed of a compliant and deformable liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) matrix that can achieve macroscopic shape change through a liquid crystal phase transition. The matrix is dispersed with liquid metal (LM) microparticles that are used to tailor the thermal and electrical conductivity of the LCE without detrimentally altering its mechanical or shape-morphing properties. Demonstrations of this composite for sensing, actuation, circuitry, and soft robot locomotion suggest the potential for versatile, tissue-like multifunctionality.

Uniform, Scalable, High-Temperature Microwave Shock for Nanoparticle Synthesis through Defect Engineering

Summary Here we demonstrate a thermal shock synthesis method triggered by microwave irradiation for the rapid synthesis of nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide (RGO) substrate. With properly controlled reduction, RGO has high electrical conductivity while maintaining functional groups, leading to an extremely efficient microwave absorption of ∼70%. The high utilization of microwaves results in the ability to raise the temperature to 1,600 K in just 100 ms, which is followed by rapid quenching to room temperature. The defects on the RGO are crucial for achieving this record-high microwave-induced temperature as these defects play a fundamental role in absorbing the radiation as well as the self-quenching mechanism. By loading precursors onto RGO, we can utilize rapid temperature change to synthesize nanoparticles. The nanoparticles are ∼10 nm with uniform distribution. This facile, rapid, and universal synthesis technique has the potential to be employed in large-scale production of nanomaterials and suggests a new direction for nanosynthesis.

Stability Study of 0.5 g/mL Urea Oral Solution in InOrpha®

Abstract Background Urea is recommended in the 2nd line treatment in moderate to severe hyponatraemia induced by syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH), when water restriction is insufficient. A posology of 0.25–0.5 g/kg daily is suggested. A usual but inadequate urea oral preparation, i. e. 10 g urea powder dissolved in 100 mL water before use, was classically compounded. Therefore the pharmacy has developed a 0.5 g/mL urea oral liquid solution in InOrpha® with better organoleptic characteristics to improve treatment adherence and reduce the preparation time. The aim of this study was to determine physicochemical and microbiological stability of the urea oral liquid solution in order to establish a shelf life of the preparation. Methods The 0.5 g/mL urea solution was compounded using urea powder in a commercial suspending vehicle: Inorpha®. A validated high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method with UV detection was performed for the assay of urea. The preparations were packaged in amber glass bottles and stored at fridge (5 °C±3 °C) or at room temperature (24 °C±1 °C). The physicochemical (urea concentration, macroscopic change) and microbiological stability of the preparation was tested over 90 days. Urea concentration measurement at day 0 was considered as the reference value (100 % stability) and urea concentration in subsequent samples greater than 90 % were definite stable without macroscopic changes. Results The developed HPLC-UV method was validated in terms of linearity, specificity, accuracy and fidelity (less than 5 % for relative standard deviation and relative error). After 90 days, no microbial growth was noted and urea concentrations were always higher than 90 % of the initial concentration. Macroscopic changes were observed for the samples stored at fridge (5 °C+/− 3 °C) with massive crystallization of urea solution. Conclusions Although, all the preparations retain more than 95 % of the initial concentration after 90 days in all storage conditions, macroscopic change and pH change (more than 1 unit after 15 days at room temperature) have to be taken into account. The 0.5 g/mL urea oral liquid solution in InOrpha® remains stable for 15 days at room temperature (24 °C±1 °C) in amber glass bottles.

Phase Separation in Supramolecular Hydrogels Based on Peptide Self-Assembly from Enzyme-Coated Nanoparticles.

Spatial localization of biocatalysts, such as enzymes, has recently proven to be an effective process to direct supramolecular self-assemblies in a spatiotemporal way. In this work, silica nanoparticles (NPs) functionalized covalently by alkaline phosphatase (NPs@AP) induce the localized growth of self-assembled peptide nanofibers from NPs by dephosphorylation of Fmoc-FFpY peptides (Fmoc: fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl; F: phenylalanine; Y: tyrosine; p: phosphate group). The fibrillary nanoarchitecture around NPs@AP underpins a homogeneous hydrogel, which unexpectedly undergoes a macroscopic shape change over time. This macroscopic change is due to a phase separation leading to a dense phase (in NPs and nanofibers) in the center of the vial and surrounded by a dilute one, which still contains NPs and peptide self-assemblies. We thus hypothesize that the phase separation is not a syneresis process. Such a change is only observed when the enzymes are localized on the NPs. The dense phase contracts with time until reaching a constant volume after several days. For a given phosphorylated peptide concentration, the dense phase contracts faster when the NPs@AP concentration is increased. For a given NPs@AP concentration, it condenses faster when the peptide concentration increases. We hypothesize that the appearance of a dense phase is not only due to attractive interactions between NPs@AP but also to the strong interactions of self-assembled peptide nanofibers with the enzymes, covalently fixed on the NPs.

Performance of Si Anodes in Ionic Liquid Electrolytes with Added Carbonates

Whether by sound political response to the climate challenge or by the eventual lack of resources, the world is set to transition from a fossil energy supply to renewable electric energy. As larger amounts of our energy will come from sources of intermittent nature, the demand for storage will inevitably rise. Batteries provide an efficient mode of electric energy storage and has a wide applicability both in stationary and mobile applications due to the scalability and high energy density of the technology. Improvements to the energy density and safety as well as lowering the price per kWh will be important in accelerating the implementation of batteries worldwide. The gradual replacement of graphite with silicon as the active material in the lithium ion battery (LIB) anode can increase the energy density, but large volume changes upon (de-)lithiation of the Si causes problems such as continuous electrolyte decomposition and excessive solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth [1]. Ionic liquid electrolytes may solve this problem by being stable at the operating potentials of the Si electrode or by forming a stable SEI, as well as improving the safety of LIBs due to their non-flammability. High viscosity and thus low ionic conductivity especially at low temperatures has been one of the problems hindering the use of ionic liquids in electrolytes. The addition of small amounts of low viscosity carbonates may provide an electrolyte with a good compromise between safety and performance [2]. Electrolytes consisting of the lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) salt and the room temperature ionic liquid N-Propyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (PYR13FSI) were made with and without the addition of standard linear and cyclic carbonates. The conductivity of the electrolytes were measured and the Li+ charge transfer kinetics were investigated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy using the methods explained by Xu et al. [3] and Jow et al. [4]. Coin cells were assembled using a 73 wt% µ-Si electrode in half and full cell setup to determine the effect of the electrolytes on rate performance and cycling stability. Silicon electrodes were extracted from the cycled cells and the composition and growth of the SEI layer was analyzed using ATR-FTIR and XPS. Cross sectional SEM imaging was used to investigate the macroscopic change in electrode structure upon cycling in the different electrolytes. The combination of these techniques provides information on the differences in SEI formation and composition, initially and after cycling. Initial results show that mixing small amounts of carbonate into ionic liquids and carbonates in the electrolyte improves the stability of silicon electrodes in Li-ion batteries as compared to electrolytes of pure ionic liquids and carbonates only. Combined with knowledge of the SEI forming reactions, these results may help in designing electrolytes that enable increased amounts of silicon in battery electrodes while improving the overall safety of the Li-ion battery.

Atomic force microscopy study of nanoporous gold surface and electrochemical properties

The morphology, surface oxide and strain evolution of nanoporous (np) gold were investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Topographic AFM images show typical np structure with a few nanometers ligament size. Current sensing AFM results revealed semiconductor properties of the surface oxide, which may consist of Ag2O (p-type) and AgO (n-type). The surface oxide can effectively suppress the np structure coarsening. In-situ electrochemical AFM tests exhibit a refined macroscopic dimensional change of 40 nm within 0.35–0.7 V potential range. AFM can be used as an effective method to investigate the morphology and voltage-induced dimension changes in electrolyte.

Photoinduced LCST Behavior of Amphiphilic Diarylethene Assemblies: Phototransformative Supramolecular Architectures and Photodriven Actuation

Self-assembled supramolecular architectures of amphiphilic diarylethenes featuring tri(ethylene glycol) monomethyl ether chains showed photoinduced macroscopic morphological change upon alternate irradiation with UV and visible light in water. These suspensions containing supramolecular assembly of the diarylethene showed absorption spectral shifts at temperatures corresponding to the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) transition. The photoreversible morphological transformation can be rationalized as the photoinduced phase transition between the high- and low-temperature phases of the LCST transition. Colorless microspheres of the open-ring isomer had bicontinuous coacervate structures. The closed-ring isomers became hydrated state and formed rod-like micelle and bilayer structures depending on intermolecular interaction. The photoinduced change in nanostructure enables application to sophisticated photoactuators in aqueous media. The nanofibers formed bundles in a methylcellulose aqueous solution by depletion force. A submillimeter-sized bundle showed a photoinduced shrinking of more than 100 µm under visible light irradiation. Elongation of the fiber was observed in the direction of linearly polarized light. The diffusive motion was suppressed in the direction perpendicular to that of the generated fiber, as revealed by means of trajectory tracking of added polystyrene beads. Photoinduced clustering of polystyrene beads and photocontrol of their diffusion was achieved with thermal convection and assistance of the change in supramolecular architectures.

Development and Validation of Multiscale Thermo-Elasto-Viscoplastic Analysis Method for Plain-Woven Composites

In this study, the analysis method for thermomechanical properties of plain-woven composites is developed, and applied to thermoelastoviscoplastic analysis of plain-woven glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) composites. For this, a time-dependent constitutive equation depending on temperature for matrix materials is incorporated into the micro/meso/macro-scale thermo-elastic homogenization method for plain-woven composites developed by our research group. This method enables us to analyze thermoelastoviscoplastic properties in not only fiber bundles but also fibers and matrix materials in fiber bundles, as well as macroscopic thermal properties. This method is then applied to the thermal expansion analysis of a plain-woven GFRP composite subjected to a macroscopic temperature change from 25°C to 80°C before it is cooled to 25°C. Comparing the analysis results with experimental data, we validate the present method. It is also shown that the present method can evaluate themal residual stress and strain in the composite.

Macroscopic Cluster Organizations Change the Complexity of Neural Activity.

In this study, simulations are conducted using a network model to examine how the macroscopic network in the brain is related to the complexity of activity for each region. The network model is composed of multiple neuron groups, each of which consists of spiking neurons with different topological properties of a macroscopic network based on the Watts and Strogatz model. The complexity of spontaneous activity is analyzed using multiscale entropy, and the structural properties of the network are analyzed using complex network theory. Experimental results show that a macroscopic structure with high clustering and high degree centrality increases the firing rates of neurons in a neuron group and enhances intraconnections from the excitatory neurons to inhibitory neurons in a neuron group. As a result, the intensity of the specific frequency components of neural activity increases. This decreases the complexity of neural activity. Finally, we discuss the research relevance of the complexity of the brain activity.

Research on influence of harmonic wear wheel on wheel/rail contact geometry of high-speed train

Harmonic wear is one of the common wear phenomena of high-speed train wheels. The change of wheel/rail rolling contact geometry leads to unstable characteristics of wheel/rail contact, which directly affects the quality and safety of high-speed train operation. Because wheelset lateral displacement directly affected the wheel/rail contact geometry, in this paper, the UM software was used to establish a high-speed train vehicle-track coupled dynamics simulation model of the CRH2 (China Railway High-speed 2) head car. Lateral displacement of harmonic wear wheel was calculated under different wear condition to analyze the influence of harmonic wear wheels on wheelset lateral displacement. Then according to macroscopic dimension change of the wheel profile from lateral and radial directions of high-speed train induced by harmonic wear wheels, wheel profiles under different wear condition were selected. And wheel/rail contact geometry under different harmonic wear stages was calculated to discuss the influence of harmonic wear wheel on wheel/rail contact geometry. The results show that harmonic order and wave depth of harmonic wear wheel have small influence on the lateral displacement of wheelset, but the influence of wave depth is greater than harmonic order. The average difference of lateral displacement between harmonic wear wheel and no harmonic wear wheel increases with the increase of wave depth and order. In a harmonic wave length, the maximum value of both equivalent conicity and contact angle appear in deepest wave depth. The greater the wave depth, the more obvious the fluctuations, and equivalent conicity changes are less obvious.

The prognostic significance of macroscopic serosal change in subserosal invasion (stage T3) gastric cancer.

For patients with gastric cancer intraoperative macroscopic serosal change is not always consistent with pathological T stage. We investigated whether macroscopic serosal change is associated with unfavourable prognosis of patients with gastric cancer. We reviewed 856 patients with stage T3 gastric cancer who underwent curative gastrectomy in our institution. All patients were classified as serosa negative and serosa positive according to the macroscopic serosal change during the operation. The prognostic difference between two groups was compared and clinicopathologic features were analysed. The percentage of macroscopic serosal change accounted for 55.7% of all patients. Compared with normal serosal surface, the patients with macroscopic serosal change had larger tumour size, more extensive stomach involvement and more advanced stage N. The prognosis of stage T3 with macroscopic serosal change was significantly poorer than that of those with normal serosal surface, especially for those with stages T3N0 and T3N1. Multivariate analysis identified macroscopic serosal change as an independent factor associated with unfavourable prognosis of stage T3 cancer. Although the depth of tumour invasion mainly depends on pathological evaluation after surgery, the prognostic significance of intraoperative macroscopic serosal change should not be ignored for those patients with subserosal invasion.

A Study on the Role of Social Studies and Its Class Improvement as a Global Citizenship Education: Focused on the Limitations of Citizenship Education revealed by Jeju Refugees ploblem

최근 발생한 제주도의 예맨 난민 문제는 그동안 한국 사회에서 이루어져 온 세계시민교육, 인권교육, 다문화교육의 실효성에 의문을 제기하는 계기가 되었다. 본 연구는 그동안 세계시민교육, 인권교육, 다문화교육의 역할을 주로 담당해 온 사회과교육의 문제점을 진단하고 개선방안을 제안하기 위해 진행되었으며 연구결과 밝혀진 문제점은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 세계화 현상이 주로 거시적 차원의 사회변동 양상으로 학습되고 있으며 학습자에게 필요한 세계시민적 자질 교육은 제대로 이루어지지 않고 있다. 둘째, 인권교육은 헌법의 역할과 기본권 중심으로 이루어지고 있으며 ‘국민의 권리’에 비해 ‘인간의 권리’는 충분히 다루어지지 않고 있다. 셋째, 다문화 교육은 여전히 동화주의적 관점에서 실시되고 있으며 난민 관련 주제나 내용은 거의 다루어지지 않는다. 따라서 이주가 보편화된 세계화 시대의 특성에 걸맞는 사회과 교육이 앞으로 실천되기 위해서는 다음과 같은 개선이 필요하다. 첫째, 사회과에서 세계시민교육의 역할이 강화되어야 한다. 둘째, 세계시민교육의 주요 목표 중 하나인 글로벌 역량은 타자에 대한 존중과 인간의 존엄성이라는 보편적 가치에 기반한 개념으로 재정의되어야 한다. 셋째, 사회과 수업은 사실, 기능, 가치문제를 균형있게 다룰 수 있는 핵심개념과 주제 중심으로 구성될 필요가 있다. 넷째, 국민으로서의 법적, 정치적 권리 뿐 아니라 인간의 권리를 포함하는 확장된 권리 개념에 기반한 인권수업이 세계시민교육적 관점에서 실천되어야 한다.Yemenite refugees problem that happened recently in Jejudo created momentum that raises many questions about global citizenship education, human rights education and multi-cultural education implemented in Korean society so far. This study was done to diagnose the problems of Social Studies that has been in charge of global citizenship education, human rights education and multi-cultural education and suggest the ways to fix the problems. This study found out that the problems of Social Studies are like the following. Firstly, globalization is being taught mainly as a macroscopic level society change and golbal citizenship qualities education that learners need has not been carried out properly. Secondly, human rights education is focused on the role of constitution and basic human rights and, compared to the rights of the people, human rights are not fully dealt with. Thirdly, multi-cultural education is still being done from an assimilatory point of view and education about refugees has been rarely done. Therefore, Social Studies education should be improved like the following. Firstly, in Social Studies education, the role of global citizen education should be strengthened. Secondly, golbal competency should be redefined as the notions based on universal values, respect for others and human dignity. Thirdly, Social Studies lessons need to be made up of key concept and subject that can deal with fact, function and value equally balanced. Fourthly, human rights education should be done based on the extended notions that include the rights of human as well as legal and political right as a people

Imaging of 180∘ ferroelectric domain walls in uniaxial ferroelectrics by confocal Raman spectroscopy: Unraveling the contrast mechanism

In recent years, Raman spectroscopy has been used to visualize and analyze ferroelectric domain structures. The technique makes use of the fact that the intensity or frequency of certain phonons is strongly influenced by the presence of domain walls. Although the method is used frequently, the underlying mechanism responsible for the changes in the spectra is not fully understood. This inhibits deeper analysis of domain structures based on this method. Two different models have been proposed. However, neither model completely explains all observations. In this work, we have systematically investigated domain walls in different scattering geometries with Raman spectroscopy in the common ferroelectric materials used in integrated optics, i.e., ${\mathrm{KTiOPO}}_{4}$, ${\mathrm{LiNbO}}_{3}$, and ${\mathrm{LiTaO}}_{3}$. Based on the two models, we can demonstrate that the observed contrast for domain walls is in fact based on two different effects. We can identify on the one hand microscopic changes at the domain wall, e.g., strain and electric fields, and on the other hand a macroscopic change of selection rules at the domain wall. While the macroscopic relaxation of selection rules can be explained by the directional dispersion of the phonons in agreement with previous propositions, the microscopic changes can be explained qualitatively in terms of a simplified atomistic model.

Accelerating coupled finite element-kinetic Monte Carlo models: 200 $$\times $$ × speedup of shear transformation zone dynamics simulations

Shear transformation zone dynamics models of metallic glass deformation access experimentally-relevant time scales by using the kinetic Monte Carlo method to simulate small, fast, often discrete events, while the finite element method calculates macroscopic shape change and continuum-level interactions within samples. The most time-consuming portion of these models is the finite element method calculation on each step. However, in cases where the finite element mesh geometry and element elastic properties do not change from step to step, the finite element stiffness matrix (and its Cholesky factors) from previous steps can be reused. This strategy improves the asymptotic complexity of these models and in practice accelerates their execution by nearly 200 $$\times $$ . This enables simulation of larger samples in more reasonable time. A set of three-dimensional shear transformation zone dynamics simulations, with larger length scales than any currently in the literature, illustrates the utility of this approach.

Causes of mortality and morbidity in free-ranging mustelids in Switzerland: necropsy data from over 50\xa0years of general health surveillance

BackgroundAlthough mustelids occur worldwide and include a wide range of species, little is known about the diseases affecting them. Mustelids have regularly been submitted for post mortem investigation in the framework of the program for general wildlife health surveillance in Switzerland, which has been in place for nearly 60 years. We performed a retrospective analysis of the necropsy reports on mustelids submitted to the diagnostic service of the University of Bern. The aims of this study were to present an overview of the causes of mortality and morbidity observed in these carnivores, to assess differences among species, to assess changes in disease detection over the study period, and to describe the pathology of selected diseases.ResultsFive hundred and sixty-six reports from 1958 to 2015 were analyzed. Most animals were stone martens (Martes foina, 46%) and badgers (Meles meles, 44%); the remaining species were polecats (Mustela putorius, 4.7%), pine martens (Martes martes, 2%), stoats (Mustela erminea, 1.4%), weasels (Mustela nivalis, 0.8%) and otters (Lutra lutra, 0.3%). Infectious diseases (n = 262) were frequent and were mostly bacterial or viral; non-infectious conditions (n = 169) were less common and were mostly traumatic or due to metabolic disorders. The most frequent diagnoses included distemper (75% were badgers), amyloidosis (96% were martens), bacterial respiratory infections (all mustelids), biting lice (badgers only) and pulmonary and gastro-intestinal helminths (all species). Less frequent diseases included histoplasmosis (badgers only), aspergillosis, toxoplasmosis, hepatozoonosis, and sarcoptic mange. Lesions due to infection with distemper virus were primarily appreciated in the respiratory tract and central nervous system; they presented species-specific characteristics such as necrosis in the ependyma in badgers and absence of syncytia in stone martens. Amyloidosis in martens was multisystemic in most cases and included both AA and AL amyloidosis; the main macroscopic change was severe splenomegaly.ConclusionInfectious diseases were the most frequent causes of morbidity and mortality of mustelids, with marked species-specific differences. Lung and skin were the most commonly affected organs. Contagious diseases such as canine distemper, sarcoptic mange and rabies in mustelids showed a similar temporal pattern as in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), suggesting pathogen spillovers from foxes to mustelids.

Classification of red blood cell shapes in flow using outlier tolerant machine learning.

The manual evaluation, classification and counting of biological objects demands for an enormous expenditure of time and subjective human input may be a source of error. Investigating the shape of red blood cells (RBCs) in microcapillary Poiseuille flow, we overcome this drawback by introducing a convolutional neural regression network for an automatic, outlier tolerant shape classification. From our experiments we expect two stable geometries: the so-called ‘slipper’ and ‘croissant’ shapes depending on the prevailing flow conditions and the cell-intrinsic parameters. Whereas croissants mostly occur at low shear rates, slippers evolve at higher flow velocities. With our method, we are able to find the transition point between both ‘phases’ of stable shapes which is of high interest to ensuing theoretical studies and numerical simulations. Using statistically based thresholds, from our data, we obtain so-called phase diagrams which are compared to manual evaluations. Prospectively, our concept allows us to perform objective analyses of measurements for a variety of flow conditions and to receive comparable results. Moreover, the proposed procedure enables unbiased studies on the influence of drugs on flow properties of single RBCs and the resulting macroscopic change of the flow behavior of whole blood.