Macro Porosity Research Articles

Soil water repellency under Eucalyptus stands of different age and its relationship with soil hydrological function and soil organic matter

Eucalyptus stands can modify soil hydrological functioning, by several mechanisms including the effect of the growing root system, changes in soil organic matter (SOM) and the occurrence of soil water repellency (SWR). This effect is expected to evolve with time, as tree root system develop and SOM is formed from tree litter. SWR can prevent water from entering the soil, reducing infiltration, while the effect of roots and SOM can improve structure, favoring infiltration. The aims of this study were: i- to determine the influence of Eucalyptus stands of different ages on soil physical and hydraulic properties and SWR phenomena; ii- to evaluate the effects of SOM content and composition on SWR; iii- to determine the relationship between SWR and soil physical properties; iv- to compare different methodologies for SWR evaluation. The soil studied was a in a silty loam Typic Argiudoll with Eucalyptus stands of 3, 7, 11 and 32 years. Samples were taken to determine saturated and near saturation hydraulic conductivity, water retention curve, total organic carbon and different fractions of SOM, and SWR. Different parameters were used to estimate SWR, including the repellency index (RI), water repellency cessation time (WRCT), modified repellency index (RIm), and a qualitative analysis of the shapes of cumulative infiltration curves. As main results, a reduction in total porosity (TP) in the first years of Eucalyptus plantation was found, followed by a steep increased in TP, mainly due to an increase in microporosity. Hydraulic conductivity decreased with stand age, which was attributed to a decrease in macro and mesoporosity and porosity connectivity. SOM and most SOM fractions were not affected by stand age. RI was a consistent method to estimate SWR in Eucalyptus stands, while WRCT and RIm determination was more difficult when non classical shapes of infiltration curves were obtained.

Surface characterization of biochar from agricultural residues for environmental applications

Bio-waste materials banana (Musa ealbisiana) leaves, cassava (Manihot esculenta) peels, mango (Mangifera indica) leaves, plantain (Plantago lanceolata) leaves and peels were pyrolyzed at different temperatures; 300, 400, 450, 500 and 600 oC using a muffle furnace. The biochar samples obtained were characterized and properties evaluated for their potential application in soil for agronomic and environmental benefits. The measured physico-chemical properties; pH, bulk density, percentage yield and electrical conductivity varied with temperature of pyrolysis and somewhat with the source of the bio-waste. Surface morphology and elemental composition were determined from Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) measurements and showed variations in texture, porosity and elemental composition with pyrolysis temperature. The produced biochar yields were in the range 16.1 to 84.6% and highest for banana leaves (BL) pyrolysed at 300 oC. The scanned images showed a remarkable surface morphology for all the biochar samples obtained at temperatures ≥ 450 oC. The pH obtained indicate the alkaline nature of the biochars with mean values > 7.5 except for cassava peels (CP) pyrolysed at 300 oC having a value of 5.5. From the elemental analysis, the high carbon content (> 60%) at higher temperatures (> 450 oC) of the biochars and the molar O/C ratios may suggest the suitability of the biochars in applications for long-term carbon sequestration and also promising candidates for soil amendment due to increase in macro porosity.

Potential use of extracted flax seed mucilage in the construction of macroporous cryo-scaffolds

Mucilage is a natural source of polysaccharides that has recently attracted attention for use in biomaterial production. It attracts attention with its easy and fast extraction, biocompatibility, high water retention capacity, and biodegradability. Although there are studies on the characterization of mucilage obtained from different plant sources, the interaction of this polymer with other polymers and its potential to form new biomaterials have not yet been sufficiently investigated. Based on this, in this study, the potential of mucilage extracted from flaxseed for the production of cryogels for tissue engineering applications was demonstrated. Firstly, yield, basic physicochemical properties, morphology, and surface charge-dependent isoelectric point determination studies were carried out for the characterization of the extracted mucilage. The successful preparation of mucilage was evaluated for the construction of cryo-scaffolds and 3D, spongy, and porous structures were obtained in the presence of chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol polymers. A heterogeneous morphology with interconnected macro and micro porosity in the range of approximately 85–115 m pore diameter was exhibited. Due to the high hydrophilic structure of the mucilage, which is attached to the structure with weak hydrogen bonds, the contact angle values of the scaffolds were obtained below 80° and they showed the ability to absorb 1000 times their dry weight in approximately 30 min. As a preliminary optimization study for the evaluation of mucilage in cryogel formation, this work introduced a new construct to be developed as wound dressing scaffold for deep and chronic wounds.

Alendronate releasing silk fibroin 3D bioprinted scaffolds for application in bone tissue engineering: Effects of alginate concentration on printability, mechanical properties and stability

3D bioprinting uses biomaterials combined with cells to develop living constructs. This study explores the optimization of natural polymers, including silk fibroin, gelatin, and alginate, as bioink for 3D bioprinting in bone tissue engineering. The physicochemical properties of the bioink were thoroughly examined, revealing high water uptake and reduced degradation rate due to the addition of silk fibroin. The compressive modulus increased with higher alginate concentration. Rheological analysis confirmed shear-thinning properties and viscoelasticity of the ink. Through meticulous parameter optimization, the ink achieved the highest print accuracy with 4 % w/v alginate content. The printed scaffolds exhibited both macro and micro porosity, making them suitable for bone tissue regeneration. Furthermore, the scaffolds remained stable in culture medium for 36 days. The optimal composition for the hydrogel was determined to be a blend of 5 % fibroin, 7 % gelatin, and 4 % alginate in equal ratios. The bioink demonstrated excellent biocompatibility and, when supplemented with alendronate, enhanced alkaline phosphatase activity in MG-63 osteoblast-like cells. This finding indicates the commitment of cells toward the osteoblastic phenotype. Overall, this study successfully optimized the bioink and bioprinting process for bone tissue engineering applications, highlighting its promising potential for future advancements in the field.

تطوير وتقييم وحدة الفحم الحيوي ذات التدفق المستمر للكتلة الحيوية لقشور الأرز

This study aims to develop and evaluate a locally manufactured carbonization unit with a screw conveyor. Various carbonization temperatures (350, 400, and 450°C) and feeding rates (50, 75, and 100 kg/h) were examined to determine optimal conditions for producing biochar from rice husk (RH). The results revealed that increasing the pyrolysis temperature from 350 to 450°C decreased RH biochar yield, while increasing the feeding rate from 50 to 100 kg/h increased it. Ash content was 22.4% at 350°C for 100 kg/h, and the maximum value was 31.4% at 450°C and 50 kg/h. The BET surface area of the biochar increased from 105.71 to 312.32 m2/g at 450°C, with slight non-significant changes at a 100 kg/h feed rate. RH biochar showed decreasing H and O values with higher temperatures and lower feed rates. RH biochar at 450°C and 50 kg/h showed increased macro porosity and surface area, rendering it suitable for agricultural application as a soil amendment.

A close-packed sphere model for characterising porous networks in atomistic simulations and its application in energy storage and conversion

Hierarchical (micro, meso & macro) porosity in materials plays a crucial role in influencing the movement of ions which governs the energy and power density during energy storage and conversion. The extant available methods to characterise porosity across scales (nano to meso to macro) lacks rigour and accuracy. Having accurate assessment of the porosity in materials can unlock new designs of electrodes for energy efficient energy storage and conversion devices such as batteries, supercapacitors and fuel cells. Through this work, we report the systematic development of a method to fully characterise the carbon porous networks using a molecular dynamics simulation testbed. Our work entails modelling and simulation of porous carbon structures using quenched molecular dynamics (QMD) simulations using Gaussian Approximation potential (GAP) and benchmarking the results with prior literature. This modelling technique can reliably be used for quantitative characterisation of the interconnectivity in porous structures to study ionic movements and charge transfer mechanisms. A new parameter, namely nearest neighbour search (NNS) coefficient was introduced to quantify homogeneity and networking in the porous structures. NNS coefficient increased from 1.62 to 1.92 with decrease of the annealing temperature from 8000 K to 4000 K in carbon. The procedure outlined was although tested on porous carbon networks, but adaptable to study any other material system at multi-length scales.

Short-term impacts of polyethylene and polyacrylonitrile microplastics on soil physicochemical properties and microbial activity of a marine terrace environment in maritime Antarctica

Evidence of microplastic (MP) pollution in Antarctic terrestrial environments reinforces concerns about its potential impacts on soil, which plays a major role in ecological processes at ice-free areas. We investigated the effects of two common MP types on soil physicochemical properties and microbial responses of a marine terrace from Fildes Peninsula (King George Island, Antarctica). Soils were treated with polyethylene (PE) fragments and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers at environmentally relevant doses (from 0.001% to 1% w w−1), in addition to a control treatment (0% w w−1), for 22 days in a pot incubation experiment under natural field conditions. The short-term impacts of MPs on soil physical, chemical and microbial attributes seem interrelated and were affected by both MP dose and type. The highest PAN fiber dose (0.1%) increased macro and total porosity, but decreased soil bulk density compared to control, whereas PE fragments treatments did not affect soil porosity. Soil respiration increased with increasing doses of PAN fibers reflecting impacts on physical properties. Both types of MPs increased microbial activity (fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis), decreased the cation exchange capacity but, especially PE fragments, increased Na+ saturation. The highest dose of PAN fibers and PE fragments increased total nitrogen and total organic carbon, respectively, and both decreased the soil pH. We discussed potential causes for our findings in this initial assessment and addressed the need for further research considering the complexity of environmental factors to better understand the cumulative impacts of MP pollution in Antarctic soil environments.

Organic Carbon Storage and Structural-Hydraulic Properties of Ultisol under Agricultural Land Use Systems at Umuahia

The extent and pattern of interaction among organic carbon, structural and hydraulic properties of soils under varying land use systems are of great concern in the overall management of soil fertility and productivity. This study was conducted to examine the relationship among soil organic carbon storage, structural and hydraulic properties of soils under different agricultural land use systems at Umuahia, Abia State. The treatments were the four (4) land use systems (continuously cultivated arable farmland, 3 – year fallow land, oil palm plantation, and forest land) in which nine (9) replicates each of disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were randomly collected to give thirty six observational units laid out in a randomized complete block design. The soil samples were prepared and analysed in the laboratory. Analyses of variance, regression and correlation analyses were conducted on the data collected using Genstat version 14 and SPSS version 20. Results show that organic carbon had significant positive relationship with saturated hydraulic conductivity, macro porosity and total porosity but significant negative relationship with bulk density at all the land use systems. However, the influence of organic carbon on the other parameters was greatest at continuously cultivated arable land followed by the 3 – year fallow land. There is need to increase organic matter input at the continuously cultivated arable land and 3 – year fallow land through increased organic manuring and extension of the fallow period, respectively.

Synthesis and characterization of hydroxyapatite self-assembled nanocomposites on graphene oxide sheets from seashell waste: A green process for regenerative medicine

Bone transplantation is the second most common transplantation surgery in the world. Therefore, there is an urgent need for artificial bone transplantation to repair bone defects. In bone tissue engineering, hydroxyapatite (HA) plays a major role in bone graft applications. This study deals with a facile method for synthesizing HA hexagonal nanorods from seashells by a solid-state hydrothermal transition process. The synthesized HA nanorods (∼2.29 nm) were reinforced with carbon nanotube and chitosan on graphene oxide sheets with polymeric support by in-situ synthetic approach. Among the synthesized nanocomposites viz., hydroxyapatite-graphene oxide (HA-GO), hydroxyapatite-graphene oxide-chitosan (HA-GO-CS), hydroxyapatite-graphene oxide-chitosan-carbon nanotube-polylactic acid (HA-GO–CS–CNT-PLA). Among them, the HA-GO–CS–CNT-PLA composite exhibits micro and macro porosity (∼200 to 600 μm), higher mechanical strength, (Hardness ∼90.5 ± 1.33 MPa; Tensile strength 25.62 MPa), and maximum cell viability in MG63 osteoblast-like cells (80%). The self-assembled hybrid-nanocomposite of HA-GO–CS–CNT-PLA is a promising material for bone filler application and could efficiently utilize seashell waste through the green process.

Evaluation of microorganisms response to soil physical conditions under different agriculture use systems

Soils with appropriate water and air conditions improve microbiological activity, but agriculture frequently deteriorates soil’s physical requirements and impairs microbes’ survival. The main aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between physical soil conditions and microbiological activity under different agricultural use and management systems in the warm tropical climate of Colombia. To evaluate physical soil conditions, bulk density (Bd), total porosity (Pt), macroporosity (MPt), water content, temperature, and mechanical penetration resistance (MPR) were measured on surface soil (0 to 10 cm) at three different use and management systems: irrigated rice (IR), pasture (P) and native forest with cacao (FC). The measured biological properties were the carbon of microbial biomass (C-MB) and the presence of bacteria and fungi. Soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined to calculate the microbiological quotient (MQ). The C-MB was significantly higher in FC (132.25) and P (148.11) but lower in IR (41.61). No significant differences were observed between the soil use system in the count of bacteria and fungi. The MQ (0.44) was higher in IR (0.22), revealing a significant effect of the soil use system on microbiological activity. Less anthropic intervention and permanent plant covers, such as FC and P, enhance microorganism’s survival, evidenced by higher C-MB content, correlated with soil Bd and MPt. The abundance of bacteria and fungi in the soil is affected by the physical conditions, primarily by Pt and MPt. However, fungi survive better with less water content, existing a differentiated effect of the physical conditions of the soil.

Spatially resolved characterization of the porous structure of lead-acid battery plates after operation using micro-computed tomography

Micro-computed tomography is a powerful non-destructive analytical technique that is used in a variety of research fields including material and battery science. This technique was used to analyze SLI lead acid plates at different states of charge (SoC) and UPS AGM battery plates at different states of health (SoH). The SLI plates were found to have no discernable macro porosity differences at different SoC along with minimal visual changes. The UPS AGM battery plates varying in SoH were found to have significantly varying porosity over the geometric plate dimensions but also over the grid mesh dimensions and plate depth. The sulphation observed on the negative plates that most probably contributed to a decrease in capacity was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis. All analyzed samples showed a positively skewed pore size distribution. Micro-computed tomography is a technique that allows for spatial resolving of the lead acid plates to further explore their porosity nature.

Utilization of palm residues for biochar production using continuous flow pyrolysis unit

Biochar is a carbonaceous solid substance produced by heating biomass without using air. This research aimed to create and evaluate local carbonization pyrolysis using a screw conveyor and filtration equipment. Date palm frond (DPF) biochar was studied and tested at pyrolysis temperatures of 320, 390, and 460 °C, as well as feeding rates of 60, 90, and 120 kg/h. The physicochemical parameters of DPF biochar were evaluated using SEM and FTIR. When the pyrolysis temperature was raised from 320 to 450 °C, and the feed rates were reduced from 120 to 60 kg/h, the biochar yield of DPF and volatiles fell. At 460 °C and 60 kg/h, the maximum ash and fixed carbon content were 11.73 and 77.61 %, respectively. As the feed rate decreased and the temperature increased, the H and O values (1.96 and 2.62 %, respectively) of DPF biochar decreased considerably; the C and N values (83.60 and 0.24 %, respectively) trended inopposite directions. The BET surface area and pore volume increased as a result of the micropore surface area and volume at higher temperatures and lower feeding rates, but water holding capacity increased from 6.04 gwater/10 g at 320 °C to 6.78 gwater/10 g at 390 °C (60 kg/h). The results showed that the heating temperature increased and the feeding rate decreased; phosphorus) P(and magnesium (Mg) increased significantly, whereas the levels of potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) showed a non-significant increase. Furthermore, as the pyrolysis temperature increased, pH and EC increased from 7.90 to 10.96 and 2.91 to 4.25 dSm−1, respectively, while CEC declined; however, there were no significant changes in CEC. DPF biochar demonstrated enhanced macro porosity and surface area at 460 °C and 60 kg/h, making it acceptable for agricultural use as a soil supplement.

3D printed cathodes for implantable abiotic biofuel cells

3D printing has recently triggered huge attention in several fields such as construction, artificial tissue engineering, food fabrication, wearable electronics, and electrochemical energy storage.This work investigates the fabrication of a 3D-printed abiotic cathode for implantable glucose/oxygen biofuel cells. The ink formulation was optimized to get printable ink with high electro-catalytic activity. Electrode macro porosity was screened in order to identify the better compromise between electrode density and electrochemical performance. A maximum current density of 260 μA/cm2 was obtained with cylindrical electrodes with linear mesh infill and a volumic infill rate of 40%.A complete biofuel cell was assembled using a 3D-printed abiotic cathode and an enzymatic anode in the form of a compressed pellet showing maximum power and current densities of 80 μW/cm2 and 320 μA/cm2, respectively. Moreover, the hybrid biofuel cell was implanted in the intraabdominal region of a rat for three months and after cell explantation, the abiotic cathode displayed a 50% decrease in the current density while the enzymatic anode did not display any residual activity.The 3D printed electrode displayed a 2–3.6 fold increase in current density when compared to homolog 2D electrodes.

Three-dimensional non-Darcy free convective heat transfer flow in a bidisperse porous medium within a cubical cavity

Heat transport in porous media, especially in a bidisperse porous matrix, has recently received considerable attention due to its diverse real-life applications in applied science and engineering. In the current study, we employ the Darcy-Brinkman-Forchheimer model and three temperature equations incorporating the local thermal nonequilibrium conditions among the fluid and the porous matrix to examine the three-dimensional free convective heat transfer flow in a bidisperse permeable matrix inside a cubical cavity. The Galerkin weighted residual finite element method simulates the model's non-dimensional governing equations. We examine the effects of the significant model parameters on the flow and heat domains considering (104 ≤ Raf ≤ 106), (103 ≤ Rap ≤ 106), (10−3 ≤ Daf ≤ 10−1), (10−4 ≤ Dap ≤ 10−2),(0.7 ≤ ϕ ≤ 0.9) and (0.4 ≤ ε ≤ 0.7). It is found that the average Nusselt number in the macrophase, microphase, and solid matrix increased with the increase of the macro porosity for about 7.18%, 7.06%, and 9.86%, respectively, when it rises from 0.7 to 0.9. Furthermore, increasing the micro-porosity enhances the rate of heat transfer. As the Raleigh number advances, there is a noticeable increase in heat transfer in both the macrophase and the microphase.

Soil tillage systems and forms of lime application on soil attribute enhancements in ratoon sugarcane

AbstractCombining deep tillage (DT) with lime application at greater depths may improve sugarcane yield. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of conventional tillage (CT) and DT systems and liming on sugarcane productivity and soil physical attributes. The experiment was conducted in a clayey‐textured Rhodic Hapludox soil cultivated with sugarcane for two growing seasons (first and third ratoons) using a randomized block design with four treatments and four repetitions. The treatments consisted of DT without liming (DT0), DT with liming (DT2), CT without liming (CT0) and CT with liming (CT2). In addition to sugarcane stalk and sugar yields, macroporosity (MA), microporosity (MI), total soil porosity (TP), weighted average diameter (WAD), aggregate stability index (ASI), soil penetration resistance (SPR), pH, potential acidity (H + Al), total soil organic carbon (SOC), particulate organic carbon (POC), mineral‐associated organic carbon (MOC), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) were analysed. DT2 promoted the best soil conservation effect on sugarcane. In general, DT, regardless of lime application, reduced SOC and POC in soil surface layer. Nevertheless, in the long term, localized lime addition resulted in significant reductions in compaction, reaching values below 2 MPa. The soil fertility improvement provided by DT2 promoted increased sucrose concentrations and stalks yield. Considering that there was an improvement in the physical quality and fertility of soil for better plant development, the deep tillage with localized lime addition can be considered an effective alternative for sugarcane cultivation.

Atributos físicos do solo submetido a ensilagem com diferentes conjuntos mecanizados

ABSTRACT The evaluation of the physical attributes of the soil in cultivated areas is essential for understanding the impacts of agricultural operations, especially those with intense machine traffic. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the physical attributes of the soil submitted to silage with different mechanized sets. A randomized block design was adopted with three treatments: forage harvester with a one-row cutting platform (T1), forage harvester with a three-row cutting platform (T2), and T2 with a forage harvester with a conveyor wagon. Before ensiling and 24 hours after the operation, intact samples of soil classified as Latossolo Vermelhoamarelo álico, intact, were collected to determine the micro, macro, and total porosity, soil density, and volumetric soil water content according to the methodology proposed by the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa). After ensiling, the resistance to soil penetration was measured with an electronic manual penetrometer, before and after ensiling, at the A horizon of the soil in the layers of 0.0-0.2 m and 0.2-0.4 m. We analyzed the data by establishing the confidence interval using the t-test at 10% probability. The sets reduce the macroporosity and total porosity of the soil in the 0.0-0.2 m and 0.2-0.4 m soil layers. T2 promoted greater total density in the 0.0–0.2 m layer. The silage increased the resistance to soil penetration to a depth of 0.15 m.

Anisotropy and macro porosity in wet sprayed concrete: Laminations, fibre orientation and macro pore properties measured by image analysis, PF test, water penetration and CT scanning

Sprayed concrete typically contains large, irregularly shaped macro pores. These are a product of the spray application and are different to spherical pores formed by an air entrainment agent for frost protection. Image analysis, capillary suction and pressurised saturation (PF test) and CT scanning were used to measure and analyse the macro porosity in specimens taken from 20 different panels sprayed in four series with varying accelerator doses, varying spraying distances and angles and varying sprayed concrete mixes. Macro porosity measurements by image analysis (3.8–7.5%) and CT scanning (4.7–10.1% measured on five specimens only) were higher than measurements by pressure saturation (2.5–4.9%). The macro porosity increased with increased set accelerator dose. 9–20% of the PF macro pore volume filled with water when submerged at atmospheric pressure. The shape of the macro pores was measured to be non-spherical, with 50% of length/width ratios greater than 1.5. The macro pores were measured to tend towards orientation parallel to the substrate. Likewise fibre orientation was measured by CT scanning to tend towards orientation towards parallel to the substrate. Water penetration tests were done on specimens with the water pressure applied parallel and perpendicular to the direction of sprayed concrete application. Water penetration was measured to be very low parallel to the direction of application, but much higher perpendicular to the direction of application, due to macro porosity and laminations in this direction, indicating the importance of execution in wet spraying of concrete.

Polycaprolactone with multiscale porosity and patterned surface topography prepared using sacrificial 3D printed moulds: Towards tailor-made scaffolds

Biocompatible three-dimensional porous scaffolds are widely used in multiple biomedical applications. However, the fabrication of tailor-made 3D structures with controlled and combined multiscale macroscopic-microscopic, surface and inner porosities in a straightforward manner is still a current challenge. Herein, we use multimaterial fused deposition modeling (FDM) to generate poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) sacrificial moulds filled with poly (Ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) to generate well defined PCL 3D objects. Further on, the supercritical CO2 (SCCO2) technique, as well as the breath figures mechanism (BFs), were additionally employed to fabricate specific porous structures at the core and surfaces of the 3D PCL object, respectively. The biocompatibility of the resulting multiporous 3D structures was tested in vitro and in vivo, and the versatility of the approach was assessed by generating a vertebra model fully tunable at multiple pore size levels. In sum, the combinatorial strategy to generate porous scaffolds offers unique possibilities to fabricate intricate structures by combining the advantages of additive manufacturing (AM), which provides flexibility and versatility to generate large sized 3D structures, with advantages of the SCCO2 and BFs techniques, which allow to finely tune the macro and micro porosity at material surface and material core levels.

Multifactorial approach to describe early diagenesis of bones: The case study of the Merovingian cemetery of Saint-Linaire (France)

The excavation of the Merovingian cemetery of Saint-Linaire (France) was an opportunity to describe the completeness of the tombs preserved from soil erosion. An anthropobiological study was carried out on the osteological material and the different categories of graves. On the basis of a complete archaeo-anthropological corpus we have undertaken an analysis of the differential preservation of the bones according to the different archaeobiological parameters such as the type of bone, the individual age but also the type of grave such as earthen graves, coffin, or sarcophagus.In order to establish whether and how funerary practices had impacted the early diagenesis of the bones, FTIR was used to investigate the carbonate and fluoride content of the bones, and the infra-red splitting factor (SF), while XRD analysis was performed to estimate the crystallinity index (CI). In addition, the micro, macro and total porosity of the bones were measured by water adsorption, and bone carbon and nitrogen amounts were obtained by EA-IRMS. These diagenetic variables were analysed with regards to environmental (grave filling: humus, calcareous, clay), cultural (type of grave) and biological (mature versus immature individuals) factors. While there is a tendency of a better preservation of the skeletons in humus, and of juvenile bones to show less post-mortem alteration than the adult skeletons, the most important factor which determines the fate of the skeleton is the type of bone, with a preferential preservation of the ribs at Saint-Linaire.

X-ray computed tomography for macropore analysis of cured and formed plates in lead acid batteries

When it comes to the properties of lead-acid batteries, macro porosity is seldom considered, even though it influences the active material loading, accessibility of acid into the active bulk material and the structural integrity of the plate. The porosity characteristics of positive and negative cured and formed plates were comprehensively analysed on the micro, meso and macro scale using a combination of BET N2 adsorption, mercury porosimetry and X-ray computed tomography (CT) respectively. Total porosity, pore size distribution, surface area, open and closed pores and surface-area-to-volume were included, where possible, with a plethora of additional data being obtained from X-ray CT analysis. Analysis from a single plate used in Starting, Lighting and Ignition (SLI) type batteries, which included three isolated samples per plate, revealed heterogeneity in macro-porosity across all regions analysed in the negative and positive cured and formed plates respectively. X-ray CT was further applied to thicker plates and a plate from an AGM type battery with a glass mat separator. The use of X-ray CT to study the changes in porosity characteristics can yield valuable insight into the properties of the active material since it remains intact within the grid support of a lead acid battery plate.