Lunar Surface Material Research Articles

Nature of the Martian Surface as Inferred from the Particle-Size Distribution of Lunar-Surface Material

Research Article| September 01, 1971 Nature of the Martian Surface as Inferred from the Particle-Size Distribution of Lunar-Surface Material CURTIS C MASON CURTIS C MASON National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas 77058 Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Author and Article Information CURTIS C MASON National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas 77058 Publisher: Geological Society of America Received: 22 Mar 1971 Revision Received: 21 Apr 1971 First Online: 02 Mar 2017 Online ISSN: 1943-2674 Print ISSN: 0016-7606 Copyright © 1971, The Geological Society of America, Inc. Copyright is not claimed on any material prepared by U.S. government employees within the scope of their employment. GSA Bulletin (1971) 82 (9): 2625–2630. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[2625:NOTMSA]2.0.CO;2 Article history Received: 22 Mar 1971 Revision Received: 21 Apr 1971 First Online: 02 Mar 2017 Cite View This Citation Add to Citation Manager Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Search Site Citation CURTIS C MASON; Nature of the Martian Surface as Inferred from the Particle-Size Distribution of Lunar-Surface Material. GSA Bulletin 1971;; 82 (9): 2625–2630. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[2625:NOTMSA]2.0.CO;2 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Refmanager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentBy SocietyGSA Bulletin Search Advanced Search Abstract The Apollo 11 and 12 core-sample tubes were 2 cm in diameter; therefore, particles of larger diameter were excluded from the samples. The percentage of 2-cm and larger particles from the Surveyor I particle-count data was combined with the Apollo 11 data, then the data were normalized and plotted as a logarithmic normal distribution. The Surveyor I curve smoothly joins the Apollo 11 averaged core 1 and core 2 curves. The percentage of 8 mm and greater particles from Surveyor I data was combined with the Apollo 12 size-distribution data and the data were normalized. A sharp break in both curves occurs at approximately the 30-percentile point, a fact that can be explained by the theory that the material actually is composed of two populations: one population caused by comminution from the impact of the larger-sized meteorites and the other population caused by the melting of fine material by the impact of smaller-sized meteorites. The Martian atmosphere would vaporize the smaller incoming meteorites and would retard incoming meteorites of intermediate and large size, causing comminution and stirring of the particulate layer. The combination of comminution and stirring of material would result in fine material being sorted out by the prevailing circulationof the Martian atmosphere and the material being transported to regions where it would be deposited. As a result, the Martian surface in the regions of prevailing upward circulation probably is covered either by a rubble layer or by desert pavement; regions of prevailing downward circulation probably are covered by sand dunes. This content is PDF only. Please click on the PDF icon to access. First Page Preview Close Modal You do not have access to this content, please speak to your institutional administrator if you feel you should have access.

Elastic properties of the lunar surface from Surveyor spacecraft data

Elastic properties of the upper few centimeters of the lunar surface material are estimated from frequency and decay rate of vertical oscillations of Surveyor spacecraft on landing. Data from tests using a duplicate spacecraft resting on a rigid surface and on test soils provided the elastic properties of the spacecraft and the expected changes in resonant frequency of oscillations when going from a rigid to a compliant surface. The surface stiffness is obtained by matching the output of an analog computer model with the test and lunar data. From the stiffness of the lunar material a range of possible seismic velocities is obtained. Compressional and shear velocities are estimated to be about 45 m/sec and 23 m/sec, respectively. These results appear to be consistent with data from the Apollo program.

Origin of the Moon by capture and its consequences

I am going to discuss four topics, ranging from celestial mechanics to speculative propositions regarding the early history of the solar system: (1) A new calculation of the orbit evolution of the moon that suggests the capture of the moon as a separate body in tidal interactions with the earth; (2) The consequences of this capture on the earth itself and on its early history; (3) The consequences of the capture on the moon, its thermal history, and its surface features; and (4) Some consequences to the early history of the solar system: the existence of many moon‐like bodies in the inner part of the solar system; the angular momentum of Venus; the origin of Phobos and Deimos.Of the many proposed modes of origin of the moon, some violate physical laws; many are in conflict with observations; all are improbable. Perhaps the least improbable—based on new tidal theory calculations and on the interpretation of lunar surface material data—is capture of the moon as it passed near the earth in a direct (prograde) orbit, shortly after the formation of moon and earth, about 4.5 billion years ago. (Capture of the moon from an initially retrograde orbit that had been proposed some years ago, leads to physically unacceptable consequences.) The effects of capture on the earth would have been cataclysmic, leading to intensive heating of its interior, to volcanism, and to the immediate formation of an atmosphere and hydrosphere. Thus capture of a moon may have given rise to the unique properties of the earth (in the solar system) and to the early evolution of life, about 3.5 billion years ago.

Lunar Atmosphere as a Source of Argon-40 and Other Lunar Surface Elements

The lunar atmosphere is the likely source of excess argon-40 in lunar surface material; about 8.5 percent of the argon-40 released into the lunar atmosphere will be implanted in the surface material by photoionization and subsequent interaction with fields in the solar wind. The atmosphere is also likely to be the source of other unexpected surface elements or of solar wind elements that impact from non-solar wind directions.

Chemical Composition of the Lunar Surface in a Terra Region near the Crater Tycho

More precise and comprehensive analytical results for lunar surface material in a terra region have been derived from the data of the alpha-scattering experiment on Surveyor 7. The silicon content and the low sodium abundance are close to that of mare material. The abundances of titanium and iron are at least a factor of 2 lower, whereas the abundances of aluminum and calcium are significantly higher. The analytical results provide direct evidence for chemical differentiation in the moon and indicate a lunar crust of appreciably lower density than the whole moon and with lower density and higher albedo than lunar mare material.

Radioactivity Induced in Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Material by Solar Flare Protons

Comparison of values of the specific radioactivities reported for lunar surface material from the Apollo 11 mission with analogous data for stone meteorites suggests that energetic particles from the solar flare of 12 April 1969 may have produced most of the cobalt-56 observed.

Radiation Effects and Oxygen Vacancies in Silicates

Proton and electron irradiation of silicates, minerals, and rocks produces a paramagnetic defect whose resonance spectrum is identical to that of the singly charged oxygen vacancy in silica glass and alpha-quartz. It is suggested that this defect is characteristic of all structures containing SiO(4) tetrahedra. Cracks, fracturing, and electric discharges have been observed after irradiation in planes determined by the particle ranges. These processes may contribute to the erosion materials.

Erratum: Specific Heats of Lunar Surface Materials from 90 to 350 Degrees Kelvin

In "Specific heats of lunar surface materials from 90 to 350 degrees Kelvin" by R. A. Robie, B. S. Hemingway, and W. H. Wilson (p. 749), the last sentence in paragraph 1, column 3, page 750, should read "Inasmuch as the rate of cooling depends on γ, the dust-covered portions of the lunar surface will cool much more rapidly than bare exposed outcrop, and thermal anomalies ( 2 ) will quickly develop over the exposed solid rock."

Lunar theory and processes: Chemical observations by surveyor V

Lunar surface material composition examination by Surveyor 5, discussing formation of surface

Chemical Analysis of the Lunar Surface in the Surveyor Program—Summary*

Chemical analyses of lunar surface materials were obtained in situ by Surveyors 5, 6, and 7. Mare samples were analyzed by Surveyors 5 and 6, which landed in Mare Tranquillitatis and Sinus Medii, respectively [Turkevich et al., 1967b, 1968]. The Surveyor‐7 analyses were made in a terra region near the crater Tycho, which is thought to be covered with éjecta from that crater [Patterson et al., 1969]. The two adjacent samples in Mare Tranquillitatis were at least partially covered with material thrown out by the footpads of the spacecraft as it slid down the side of a small crater.

Properties of Lunar Surface Material From Direct Observation by Spacecraft—Summary*

The seven unmanned spacecraft that have landed on the moon, together with the lunar orbiting spacecraft, provided considerable information on the chemical composition, mechanical properties, and small‐scale structure of the lunar surface. This abstract, prepared prior to manned landing on the moon, summarizes some of the results; a more complete account is available elsewhere [Jaffe, 1969a, c]. Space‐craft results pertaining to the lunar interior and to the surroundings of the moon are omitted from this paper, as are results based on data from electromagnetic detectors alone, which other papers at this symposium discuss and interpret.SURFACE OVERThe disturbances of the lunar surface produced by Surveyor landing gear, surface sampler devices, and rocket engines showed that both maria and high‐lands are covered with a layer of fine particles.

Comparison of the Chemical Composition of Lunar Surface Material Determined by Radioastronomical Observations With the Results of Chemical Analysis Obtained by Surveyor

It is of great interest to compare the results of the chemical analysis of the lunar surface material made by ‘Surveyor’ with that based on the data of the radio astronomical investigations of the electromagnetic properties of the lunar material. The method of determining the chemical composition by the equipment brought onto the moon by Surveyor 7 has been described by Turkevich et al. [1968].From ground‐based optical observations of the moon, attempts to estimate the chemical composition of the lunar surface material have been made, for example, by comparing the polarization properties with those observed for terrestrial rocks. Yet, optical methods are not very effective, as their results depend chiefly on the geometrical properties of the surface (i.e. the roughness). Radar measurements provide the reflection coefficient and some limited data on the nature of the lunar material. They allow, for example, one to distinguish between a metallic and a dielectric reflector.

Experimental Petrology of Lunar Material: the Nature of Mascons, Seas, and the Lunar Interior

One-atmosphere melting data show that Apollo 11 samples are near cotectic. Melting relations at pressures up to 35 kilobars show that clinopyroxenite or amphibole peridotite are possible lunar interiors. Mascons cannot be eclogite; they may be ilmenite accumulate. Hot lunar surface material will boil off alkalis.

Search for Magnetic Monopoles in the Lunar Sample

An electromagnetic search for magnetic monopoles of the minimum size predicted by Dirac, or of any larger magnitude, has been performed on 8.37 kilograms of lunar surface material. No monopole was found. This experimnent sets new limists on the production cross section for monopoles and on their occurrence in cosmic radiation.

Specific Heats of Lunar Surface Materials from 90 to 350 Degrees Kelvin

The specific heats of lunar samples 10057 and 10084 returned by the Apollo 11 mission have been measured between 90 and 350 degrees Kelvin by use of an adiabatic calorimeter. The samples are representative of type A vesicular basalt-like rocks and of finely divided lunar soil. The specific heat of these materials changes smoothly from about 0.06 calorie per gram per degree at 90 degrees Kelvin to about 0.2 calorie per gram per degree at 350 degrees Kelvin. The thermal parameter gamma=(kpC-(1/2) for the lunar surface will accordingly vary by a factor of about 2 between lunar noon and midnight.

Determination of the Albedo of the Moon at a Wavelength of 6 in

view Abstract Citations (9) References (11) Co-Reads Similar Papers Volume Content Graphics Metrics Export Citation NASA/ADS Determination of the Albedo of the Moon at a Wavelength of 6 in Hagfors, T. ; Green, J. L. ; Guillen, A. Abstract A method is described whereby the reflectivity of the lunar surface may be determined by measuring the amount of cosmic noise being reflected. The method is applied to data obtained at the Jicamarca Radar Observatory. It is determined that the apparent dielectric constant of the lunar surface material at a wave- length of 6 m is 3. .7. This indicates that the wavelength dependence of the reflectivity is not quite as strong as previous observational results would tend to indicate, and that relatively loosely packed surface strata must exist to depths of several meters. Publication: The Astronomical Journal Pub Date: December 1969 DOI: 10.1086/110925 Bibcode: 1969AJ.....74.1214H full text sources ADS |

Mechanical properties of lunar surface material

This paper contains a review of the information that has been obtained about the mechanical properties of the lunar surface from observations made by the American Surveyor spacecraft. It is shown that for a depth of a few meters the material is granular, having a size grading with 90% below about 250 to 500 μ and 50% below 20 μ. The rock density is about 2.4 to 3.1 g/cm 3. From the imprints of the Surveyor footpads it is deduced that the angle of internal friction of the material is 37° to 39° and the cohesion is in the region 0.05 to 0.1 psi. The bulk density is about 1.5 g/cm 3, indicating a voidage of 0.45. The results are compared with those obtained from observations made by the Russian Luna spacecraft and it is suggested that differences between the two sets of results are due to ambiguities in the Russian estimate of the bulk density of the granular surface.

Lunar Surface Material: Spacecraft Measurements of Density and Strength

The relation of the density of the lunar surface layer to depth is probably best determined from spacecraft measurements of the bearing capacity as a function of depth. A comparison of these values with laboratory measurements of the bearing capacity of low-cohesion particulate materials as a function of the percentage of solid indicates that the bulk density at the lunar surface is about 1.1 grams per cubic centimeter and that it increases nearly linearly to about 1.6 grams per cubic centimeter at a depth of 5 centimeters.

A discussion on infared astronomy - Mid-infrared spectroscopic observations of the Moon

Now that space probes have actually landed on the Moon, and man is soon to follow, one might suppose that the need for the development of lunar remote sensing techniques is past. Exactly the opposite is true. It must be remembered that no nation is financially able to support exploration of more than a very small percentage of the total surface area of the moon. Small areas immediately adjacent to a landing site will, of course, be explored in detail. Hopefully, there will be a few traverses made to discover the degree of lateral inhomogeneity of the surface materials. Realistically, however, we must plan on extending this ‘ground truth’ information to cover the entire lunar surface by remote means. In fact, remote sensing techniques will be employed prior to much of the detailed lunar surface exploration in order to define areas of maximum interest. The mid-infrared region of the spectrum is a wavelength region which possesses a high potential usefulness for remote sensing, because the molecular vibration spectra in this region are directly interpretable in terms of molecular composition. It is the purpose of this paper to examine this potential, review the theoretical justification for use of this wavelength region, describe laboratory studies of possible lunar surface materials, and present the data so far obtained from the moon itself.

Terrestrial, lunar, and interplanetary rock fragmentation

Collected data are presented on mass distributions of fragmented rocks. These can be used to interpret extraterrestrial rock samples. Lunar surface material disturbed by Surveyors is broken in a way characteristic of low-energy, mechnical breakage, as expected. Debris around decameter-scale lunar craters with strewn rock fields also exhibits this property, suggesting that many such craters are secondary impacts. Centimeter-scale debris on the lunar maria shows evidence of extensive regrinding, probably due to repeated primary and secondary impacts, but such debris near Tycho appears not to have been so extensively ground; evidently this results from Tycho's young age. Telescopic asteroids have evidently been fragmented by attenuated shock waves in sporadic collisions, while meteorites are apparently the debris from repeated and/or hypervelocity collisions.