Low-cost Solution Research Articles

Optimizing Cabbage Cultivation in Paddy-Converted Fields Using Discarded Coir Substrates and Controlled Irrigation

This study aimed to reuse discarded coir substrates and optimize irrigation as a low-cost solution for addressing waterlogging in paddy-converted farmland. We employed a 2 × 4 factorial design, with the growth substrates consisting of paddy soil (PS) and coir substrates (CSs), and four irrigation levels (ILs) set as 140% crop evapotranspiration (ETc140), 100% ETc (ETc100), 60% ETc (ETc60), and non-irrigated control (ETc0). We evaluated the growth and physiological characteristics of cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. Capitata), including the outer leaf growth, yield components, water use efficiency (WUE), photosynthetic parameters, chlorophyll content, proline content, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and glucosinolates (GLs) content. The results indicated that the interaction between the CSs and IL significantly improved cabbage growth, photosynthetic activity, and stress resistance compared with PS. Notably, when CS was combined with ETc100 and ETc60 irrigation levels, cabbage exhibited optimal growth parameters, and CS-ETc60 achieved the highest WUE. This study indicated that using discarded coir substrates combined with appropriate irrigation levels offers an effective and low-cost solution for mitigating waterlogging problems.

Effects of Locust Bean Pod (Parkia Biglobosa) Extract on Workability and Strength of Concrete

Purpose: Predominantly in the northern part of Ghana and other neighbouring West African countries, the Locust Bean Pod Extract (LBPE), known for its adhesive and cohesive properties, has enjoyed high patronage in its incorporation in various traditional construction formulations, especially in the production of clay floor tiles and bricks for some time now. To justify the material’s continual use, this paper explored the impact of the LBPE on the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Design/Methodology/Approach: LBPE was obtained by soaking the pods in 10g per litre of water for different extraction periods. Based on LBPE replacement percentages and soaking durations, 469 concrete cubes were formed from 9 different concrete mixes. The slumps for the various mixes and the strength of hardened concrete were tested after curing durations of 7 days to 28 days. Findings: The experimental results revealed that LBPE enhanced the strength of concrete and gave it more workable mixes than concrete made with ordinary water. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis on the control indicates the presence of Oligoclase, whilst the LBPE samples indicate the presence of Albite. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis revealed the differences in element composition of both the control and LBPE samples. LBPE extraction at 4 days and 75% LBPE replacement of water achieved 54.67% more 28-day strength and over 21% more workability than the control. Fourier Transform Infrared results indicate that tannins are the primary functional element in LBPE. Research Limitations: This study established that replacing water with LBPE significantly improves the workability and strength of concrete. The extraction at 4 days and 75% water replacement with LBPE yielded optimum results. Practical implications: This study provides a sustainable and low-cost solution to the mutually exclusive problem of increasing concrete workability and strength. Social Implication: This study will assist practising engineers in dealing with the issue of artisans increasing the water-cement ratio of mixes to obtain workable mixes, which results in weak concrete strength and subsequent failure of concrete structures Originality/ Value: This original experimental laboratory study addresses the problem of artisans using too much water to mix concrete to ensure workable mixes.

Data Security Challenges and Solutions in Big Data Cloud Environments

Every day, enormous amounts of data are produced at an exponential pace. Therefore, in order to get valuable insights into the modern world, analytics over data is unavoidable. Big Data (BD) makes good judgments and is strong in important applications. Big Data's meteoric rise in cloud computing has brought both new possibilities and new difficulties to the management and processing of enormous datasets. Hadoop and MapReduce are two state-ofthe-art technologies used in today’s world to face the heterogeneous high velocity, high variety and huge volume of data. CSPs such as AWS provide highly effective, low-cost solutions for managing and analyzing Big Data, yet security and privacy issues are still critical because of the highly sensitive nature of the information and due to the challenges brought about by intercloud migrations and high flash data rates. The present review paper aims to identify the key data security concerns in Big Data cloud computing models to analyze data privacy and integrity, availability, access control and multi-tenancy risks. It also provides an overview of kinds of security threats: encryption methods, methods of data-sharing safely, access-control mechanisms, and machine-learning-based anomaly detection that can protect from these threats. Furthermore, it emphasizes using scalable and multi-layer security architecture for the secure management of critical data through Big Data applications and maintaining their performance and capacity. Through these issues with sound security measures being addressed, corporations c

Surface passivation strategies for CsPbBr3 quantum dots aiming at nonradiative suppression and enhancement of electroluminescent light-emitting diodes.

With many fascinating characteristics, such as color-tunability, narrow-band emission, and low-cost solution processability, all-inorganic lead halide perovskite quantum dots (QDs) have attracted keen attention for electroluminescent light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) and display applications. However, the performance of perovskite QLED devices is intrinsically limited by the inefficient electrical carrier transport capacity. Herein, one facile but effective method is proposed to enhance the perovskite QLED performance by incorporating a short carbon chain ligand of 2-phenethylammonium bromide (PEABr) to passivate the CsPbBr3 QD surface. With the PEABr ligand, the Br- vacancies are passivated, which could eliminate nonradiative recombination of perovskite QDs; thus their optical properties are enhanced. Meanwhile, PEABr can interact with perovskite QDs to adjust the perovskite film morphology, resulting in low current leakage and efficient electron injection. After the PEABr treatment, the CsPbBr3 QD film exhibits strong green emission located at 516 nm, with an average photoluminescence lifetime of 45.71 ns and a photoluminescence quantum yield of up to 78.64%. In addition, the surface roughness of the CsPbBr3 QD film is reduced from 3.61 nm to 1.38 nm, which is essential to prepare a QD film with high surface coverage. As a result, the QLED device with PEABr treated CsPbBr3 QDs exhibits a maximum current efficiency of 32.69 cd A-1 corresponding to an external quantum efficiency of 9.67%, 3.88-fold higher than that of the control device (pure QDs as an emission layer). This research provides an effective strategy for the improvement of the perovskite QLED performance and may be helpful for extending their actual applications.

A Wearable Device with Triboelectric Nanogenerator Sensing for Respiration and Spirometry Monitoring.

Wearable devices have been developed for the continuous and long-term monitoring of respiration. Although current wearable devices are able to measure the respiration rate, extracting breathing volume has been challenging. In this paper, we propose a wearable respiration monitoring sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) technology. The proposed device successfully measures both respiration rate and volume in real-time. The device is tested with seven participants for respiration and spirometry studies. The results show that the proposed TENG sensor is able to capture the respiration waveform with high accuracy. All breathing patterns mentioned in this study give a mean absolute error (MAE) within 0.2 breaths per minute and a mean percentage absolute (MPAE) error within 2%. The results of the spirometry study show that the TENG sensor can measure the airflow and volume during exhalation. The flow time graph gives an average correlation of 0.88 compared with that of the reference spirometer. The reconstructed volume time plot from the TENG sensor results in an MAE of 2.43% for the ratio of the forced expiratory volume in 1 s to the forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC). The proposed device provides a low-cost solution for real-time and wearable monitoring for respiration parameter measurement.

Biosorption of Caffeine from Contaminated Water onto Sugarcane Bagasse Biomass

Caffeine waste residue has been identified as a significant source of environmental caffeine contamination, primarily originating from the disposal of unfinished caffeinated beverages. Once released, caffeine can reach wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and eventually enter the water cycle, posing potential ecological risks. This study investigates the potential of sugarcane bagasse, a readily available and inexpensive material, as an activated carbon adsorbent for caffeine removal. The sugarcane bagasse was chemically activated using sulphuric acid to enhance pore development. Various operating parameters, including adsorbent dosage, contact time, and stirring rate, were examined to optimize caffeine adsorption. The activated carbon was characterized using Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy (LVSEM) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Results demonstrated a maximum caffeine removal efficiency of 99.12%, highlighting the potential of sugarcane bagasse as a low-cost and eco-friendly solution for wastewater treatment applications.

On a journey to citywide inclusive sanitation (CWIS)? A political economy analysis of container-based sanitation (CBS) in the fragmented (in)formal city

ABSTRACT Rapidly growing cities face the chronic challenge of access to safe, dignified and accessible sanitation, in contexts of inequality and informality. Technological and operational innovations, such as container-based sanitation (CBS), are promoted as relatively low-cost market-based circular economy off-grid solutions to deliver citywide inclusive sanitation (CWIS). However, in the absence of evidence that CBS is delivering on these promises, this paper asks: under what conditions can CBS services contribute to achieving CWIS goals? It applies a combined political economy and socio-technical regime analysis to examine multi-level governance in the sanitation sector and CBS service regimes in Cape Town, Lima, Nairobi and Cap-Haitien. Only Cape Town, a municipality-controlled system, demonstrates the necessary public authority that enables CBS to operate at scale. Yet, it is regarded by many residents in informal settlements as poor sanitation for poor people. This suggests that scaling CBS requires sustained public investment and strong coordinating authority.

Low-cost photogrammetry solutions for surveying confined underground spaces: testing the traditional set-up against 360° camera on Tombs of the Kings archaeological site

Abstract. This study explores low-cost photogrammetry solutions for surveying confined underground spaces, focusing on Tomb 7 at the UNESCO World Heritage Site, Tombs of the Kings in Paphos, Cyprus. The research, part of the ENGINEER project, compares traditional photogrammetric methods using frame cameras against a 360° multi-lens camera. The aim is to identify reliable, low-cost methods for 3D documentation of archaeological sites, which can be used for structural analysis and systematic monitoring.Three photogrammetric acquisition methodologies were tested: handheld with frame camera, standard with frame camera, and relaxed with 360° camera. The study evaluates the accuracy of these acquisition methods by comparing dense point clouds generated from each dataset against a reference dataset obtained via terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). Metrics such as cloud-to-cloud distance, roughness, and point cloud density were used for comparison.Results indicate that while the 360° camera offers ease of use and high data density, it also introduces more noise and variability. Traditional methods, though more time-consuming, provide more consistent and accurate results. The findings suggest that combining both approaches could optimize data quality and acquisition efficiency, making the 360° multi-lens camera a viable low-cost photogrammetry option for heritage documentation.

Mobile Robot Positioning with Wireless Fidelity Fingerprinting and Explainable Artificial Intelligence.

Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) based positioning has gained popularity for accurate indoor robot positioning in indoor navigation. In daily life, it is a low-cost solution because Wi-Fi infrastructure is already installed in many indoor areas. In addition, unlike the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Wi-Fi is more suitable for use indoors because signal blocking, attenuation, and reflection restrictions create a unique pattern in places with many Wi-Fi transmitters, and more precise positioning can be performed than GNSS. This paper proposes a machine learning-based method for Wi-Fi-enabled robot positioning in indoor environments. The contributions of this research include comprehensive 3D position estimation, utilization of existing Wi-Fi infrastructure, and a carefully collected dataset for evaluation. The results indicate that the AdaBoost algorithm attains a notable level of accuracy, utilizing the dBm signal strengths from Wi-Fi access points distributed throughout a four-floor building. The mean average error (MAE) values obtained in three axes with the Adaptive Boosting algorithm are 0.044 on the x-axis, 0.063 on the y-axis, and 0.003 m on the z-axis, respectively. In this study, the importance of various Wi-Fi access points was examined with explainable artificial intelligence methods, and the positioning performances obtained by using data from a smaller number of access points were examined. As a result, even when positioning was conducted with only seven selected Wi-Fi access points, the MAE value was found to be 0.811 for the x-axis, 0.492 for the y-axis, and 0.134 for the Z-axis, respectively.

MQTT Protocol in Smart Home Environments: Principles of Operation and Application

Internet of Things as a revolutionary concept in technology of modern days has led to the popularization of “smart” things. It introduces low-cost and reliable solutions to provide independent operations of devices and machines. Smart home systems have become one of the most important implementations as they significantly improve the quality of people’s lives. Since communication plays a key role in these systems, this article provides insights into Message Queuing Telemetry Transport protocol application in smart home systems. Although it is not the only protocol used, MQTT stands out in terms of reliability, efficiency, and simplicity. The article provides major MQTT characteristics, advantages and its application in a particular smart home system for ambient parameters monitoring and control. The system integrates NodeMCU based sensor node with mobile and web applications via MQTT protocol. Results of the performance analysis of MQTT use in this system are given. Tests have shown great connection establishment speed, a high percentage of successfully sent messages, and a large number of messages sent per minute. Thanks to the flexibility of the MQTT protocol, the system is easy to upgrade and expand.

Nuclear Cogeneration to Support a Net-Zero, High-Renewable Electricity Grid

UK Government projections anticipate increasing electricity use, provided by variable renewables (i.e., wind and solar PV). A side effect of increasing the proportion of variable renewable generation is increased support costs, including curtailment, energy storage, and (most significantly) the cost of supplying electricity for periods of high demand when variable renewable generation is low. As the proportion of variable renewable capacity increases, demand for supporting capacity increases but the capacity factor of the support generation decreases, raising the support costs. Using nuclear power for dedicated baseload supply makes the situation worse. This paper explores in the UK context an original low-cost solution using nuclear cogeneration with hydrogen production as the main application. Electricity is diverted at low cost to the grid at times of high demand when renewables are not available. This ensures nuclear maintains a high capacity factor. When higher temperature advanced systems become available, using thermal energy storage will increase the nuclear electrical capacity. This “Flexible Nuclear” scenario substantially reduces support costs for accommodating variable renewables, saving GBP 14 bn/yr and leading to an 80% reduction in CO2 equivalent emissions, compared to a recent UK Government scenario utilising a large capacity of hydrogen and unabated gas generation at very low capacity factors.

Effects of Rhizobium Inoculation on Rhizosphere Soil Microbial Communities, Physicochemical Properties, and Enzyme Activities in Caucasian Clover Under Field Conditions

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture has become a major global source of pollution, leading to issues such as soil compaction, reduced fertility, eutrophication of water bodies, and air pollution. To address these challenges, the application of biofertilizers, such as rhizobial inoculants, has gradually become an effective, low-cost, and sustainable solution. In this study, the variety Trifolium ambiguum Bieb. (Mengnong clover No. 1) was used as the test material, and two rhizobial strains (R1 and R2) were employed for field inoculation trials. In April 2022, Caucasian clover was planted in an experimental field at Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. Each plot measured 3 m × 4 m and was arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications. In the regreening stage of 2023, rhizobial inoculation treatments were applied, with a control group included for comparison. This research examined the effects of rhizobial inoculation on the growth indicators of Caucasian clover, soil physicochemical properties, soil enzyme activities, and soil microbial communities. The results showed that rhizobial treatment increased the plant height and yield of Caucasian clover, improved soil physicochemical properties and enzyme activities, and positively affected soil microbial diversity and abundance. These changes enhanced soil fertility and optimized microbial community structure, promoting plant growth. The inoculation effect of strain R1 was superior to R2. In conclusion, rhizobial inoculants R1 and R2 can serve as effective biofertilizers for agricultural production.

A Low-Cost Open-Source Uniaxial Tensile System for Soft Tissue Testing

The evaluation of soft tissue biomechanical properties is of paramount importance not only for a comprehensive understanding of human physiology and physiopathology, but also in the research and development of bio-compatible artificial tissues with viscoelastic properties. Contrarily to standard tensile testing devices, a system intended for biomaterials testing should consider low stress and high strain ranges, characteristic of human tissues; moreover, such a system should enable the ex vivo simulation of biological environmental conditions. Commercial solutions address these challenges, although they are expensive for most academic and research institutions. This study presents a low-cost open-source design solution for soft tissue tensile testing, offering an affordable solution, yet without compromising the high quality and precision of the results. The proposed uniaxial tensile system allows for sample testing at room temperature as well as in a temperature-controlled liquid environment. Moreover, custom clamps ensure the fixation of tissue samples without slipping or tearing. System validation is performed using the tensile testing of springs and 3D-printed soft polymeric samples, demonstrating accurate results compared to the available data. The system is suitable for educational, research, and development applications.

A low-cost system for continuous dynamic monitoring and autonomous data analysis using the Internet of Things and Machine Learning

Structural health monitoring using the Internet of Things (IoT) is the latest tech-nique employed in the field of structural damage detection. Although conventional systems based on commercial sensors, such as piezoelectric accelerometers, pro-vide high accuracy, their high cost often limits their application. To address this is-sue, one possibility has been the development of strategies using low-cost sen-sors. However, there are several challenges to be addressed, such as the optimiza-tion of the low-cost devices to increase their reliability in reading and processing data, and the development of data storage and data transmission strategies, mainly for dynamic monitoring applications, which requires working with large amounts of data. In this regard, this paper presents the development of a low-cost SHM so-lution, which is able to collect, store, process and transmit vibration data to the cloud from an instrumented aluminum beam. For this purpose, a prototype is de-veloped using an ESP32 board, an MPU6050 triaxial accelerometer and a mi-croSD card. A completely low-cost system is adopted, where the data processing and availability of results to the final user is performed in the free version of ThingSpeak IoT platform from MathWorks. As a result, a fully automatic dynam-ic monitoring strategy able to collect, store and transmit raw vibration data to the cloud is developed. Then, the raw acceleration data is processed and analyzed in the cloud, where the Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) are computed and visualized in quasi-real time.

Ion selective rapid transport enabled by functionalized CeO2/LiX zeolite modified separator in high performance lithium sulfur batteries

With regard to the issues in the application of lithium sulfur batteries (LSBs), for instance, the low-rate performance due to the difficulty in Li+/Sn2- diffusion, and the poor cycling stability caused by lithium dendrites and polysulfide shuttle. This work reports a unique strategy for protecting lithium anode, that is, using the “size sieving” and “Donnan effect” of CeO2/LiX modified separator to simultaneously regulate the transfer behavior of Li+/Sn2- based on the differences in size and charge. The CeO2, which is carefully constructed with oxygen defects, together with the negatively charged properties of zeolite framework, exhibits a synergistic relationship in controlling the flux and diffusion rate of Li+ and suppressing the polysulfide shuttling, which is confirmed by the experimental and theoretical investigations. As a result, the symmetric cell assembled with CeO2/LiX modified separator achieves stable cycling for 5000 h at 5 mA cm−2 and 5 mA h cm−2, and a deep Li stripping/plating for more than 2000 h at 10 mA h cm−2. The corresponding full battery shows a competitive areal capacity of 4.7 mA h cm−2 under a high sulfur loading of 4.0 mg cm−2. This strategy offers a low-cost solution to achieve the practical application of LSBs.

Impact of 3D printing technology for the construction of a prototype of low-cost robotic arm prostheses

This article explores the impact of 3D printing technology on prototyping low-cost robotic arm prosthetic. The research begins with a thorough analysis of the robotic arms currently available on the market, with the aim of identifying their characteristics, costs, and limitations. Based on this review, an in-house design is developed using simplified CAD software, tailored to optimize both functionality and production efficiency. The construction of the prototype is carried out using 3D printing, taking advantage of the capabilities of this technology to reduce costs and manufacturing times compared to traditional methods. The article details the design and printing process, highlighting key decisions made to maximize the economic viability of the project. Finally, a detailed analysis of the costs associated with the project is carried out, comparing the results obtained with the initial reference data. This analysis allows us to evaluate the effectiveness of 3D printing as a low-cost solution in the development of robotic prostheses, highlighting its economic benefits and potential areas for improvement. The findings suggest that 3D printing represents a promising alternative for the creation of accessible robotic prosthetic, with significant implications for cost reduction and democratization of access to new technologies.

HVAC System Management with a Low-Cost Solution

Abstract The paper presents a low-cost solution for managing HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems using an ESP32 microcontroller as the primary control unit. The proposed system integrates multiple DHT temperature sensors and actuators, such as relays, to regulate heating, cooling, and ventilation within a residential environment. The ESP32 hosts a web-based application that enables users to monitor and control the HVAC system in real-time, offering an intuitive interface accessible via any device connected to the home network. By automating the HVAC operations based on real-time data, this solution not only provides convenience but also enhances energy efficiency by optimizing temperature control and reducing unnecessary power consumption. This affordable and user-friendly system demonstrates the potential of IoT technology in creating efficient and accessible home automation systems, making it an attractive option for homeowners aiming to reduce costs and improve climate control within their living spaces.

Study of Orthophotos Spatial Quality from Integrated Physical Data Collection in Samarinda City

Abstract Integrated physical data collection as a mapping instrument and an up-to-date and comprehensive base map have been carried out on a massive scale by the Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning/National Land Agency throughout Indonesia. There are facts in the field that the results of orthophoto products still have a spatial quality that could be more optimal. In Samarinda City, this activity’s subdistrict was indicated to have a geometric accuracy of above 0.5 m. This condition does not meet the accuracy tolerances stated in the Service Level Agreement (SLA) or relevant regulations. Therefore, alternative solutions are needed to improve the quality of orthophotos by paying attention to economic value. This research aims to evaluate, and improve the spatial quality of orthophotos resulting from integrated physical data collection in 2023 in Samarinda City without re-acquisition. In other words, this research aims to determine alternative low-cost and efficient solutions to improve orthophotos’ spatial data quality. Data in the form of orthophotos and a 2023 Ground Control Point (GCP) coordinates list in Samarinda City. The approach method is the addition of GCP in the reprocessing of orthophotos. The study area is hilly and flat terrain. Results analysis uses geometric accuracy (horizontal and vertical) and semantic accuracy tests. The geometric accuracy test results before reprocessing had a CE90 value of 0.438 m based on the SLA attachment. However, they exceeded the CE90 threshold of ≥ 0.5 m based on the results of field suppletion measurements. The results of the semantic accuracy test have a National Imagery Interpretability Rating Scale (NIIRS) level 6, which means that orthophotos can make it easier to interpret geographical objects in detail. reprocessing with the addition of GCP can increase geometric accuracy with a CE90 value of 0.240 m and LE90 1.01 m. The spatial quality of orthophotos before and after reprocessing has a relatively significant difference. Adding GCP followed by reprocessing can be used as an alternative solution to improve the quality of orthophotos at a low cost.

A Scoping Review of Pakistani Healthcare Simulation: Insights for Lower-Middle-Income Countries.

Healthcare simulation has gained global recognition in health professions education, yet its adoption in Pakistan, a lower-middle-income country (LMIC), remains limited. This scoping review aimed to explore how simulation is integrated into healthcare education in Pakistan, highlighting challenges and opportunities to inform similar LMICs.Pakistan serves as a critical case study for LMICs due to its unique challenges, including uneven access to simulation technologies and limited faculty training, which are shared by many similar resource-constrained settings. Using the Arksey and O'Malley framework, a systematic review of 693 publications identified 145 studies that met inclusion criteria. The findings revealed diverse simulation modalities primarily focused on skills training and clinical decision-making. Notable innovations included low-cost simulation solutions,effectively addressing resource constraints. However, significant gaps emerged, including an urban-centric focus with limited rural representation, insufficient evaluation of long-term impacts, and the absence of standardized terminology and training protocols. These challenges hinder broader integration and equitable access to simulation-based learning. Addressing these gaps through strategic collaborations, capacity-building initiatives, and innovative, cost-effective solutions, such as low-cost simulators crafted from readily available materials, could enhance simulation adoption in Pakistan and similar LMICs. This review highlights the importance of adopting evidence-based practices, increasing funding, and conducting comprehensive research on simulation's long-term impact to ensure effective implementation and improved healthcare education and outcomes globally.

Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Space Heating: Integrating Solar Air Heaters and Low-Cost Retrofitting Windows for Hilly Region of Kashmir

The Kashmir valley experiences a moderate climate, characterized by cool springs and autumns, mild summers, and cold winters, necessitating heating for approximately 5-6 months annually. Due to unreliable power supply, traditional heating methods such as gas heaters, wood fires, or Kangri's are often relied upon, despite their adverse health and environmental impacts due to emissions of toxic gases. Therefore, there is a need of transition towards non-conventional energy sources. Solar air heaters emerge as a viable option, converting solar radiation into thermal heat which is then delivered to living or working spaces. In addition to minimizing energy requirements for space heating, strategies to reduce heat loss can further enhance energy efficiency. Developing low-cost retrofit window solutions to improve the thermal efficiency of existing windows proves instrumental in this regard. Retrofit windows, designed to fit into existing frames, improve insulation and reduce energy loss without requiring costly renovations. The primary aim of these retrofit windows is to optimize energy efficiency affordably, minimizing heat transfer and preventing air leaks, thereby reducing energy consumption and utility bills while enhancing indoor comfort by maintaining stable temperatures. The several tests were conducted on a thermally insulated test room of size 12*8*10 cubic feet room for solar air heaters under various atmospheric conditions gives a temperature increases of up to 10°C within one hour under different parameters. Furthermore, retrofitting demonstrated a 45.69% reduction in energy requirements at a very affordable cost.