Low Stress Levels Research Articles

Low-cycle fatigue properties and fracture location transition mechanism of dissimilar steel welded joints in towers of wind turbines

This study investigates the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of two types of dissimilar steel welded joints (DSWJs): AISI 1035 & S550Q and AISI 1020 & S550Q. Digital image correlation (DIC) and finite element analysis (FEA) were used to analyze the heterogeneous strain distribution. The results reveal that the location of maximum strain, which is load-dependent and related to strength mismatch, corresponds to the fracture location of the LCF specimens. Specifically, the crack initiation site shifts from the weld toe to the base metal as strain increases. Moreover, the weld reinforcement of the DSWJs significantly affects the failure site transition, introducing strain concentration at lower stress levels while enhancing deformation resistance at higher stress levels, as evidenced by DIC strain measurements and FEA. These findings highlight the importance of joint reinforcement profile, strength mismatch and external load level in designing DSWJs for wind turbine towers against LCF failure.

Impact of childhood exposure to traffic related air pollution on adult cardiometabolic health: Exploring the role of perceived stress

BackgroundLittle is known about how childhood exposure to traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) and stress interact to affect adults' cardiometabolic health. We examined this interaction and assessed the impact of over 10 years of childhood TRAP exposure on cardiometabolic health. MethodsFrom 2018 to 2023, 313 young adults from the Southern California Children's Health Study were enrolled in a follow-up assessment. Using CALINE4 line source dispersion model, average childhood TRAP exposures (from pregnancy to age 13) were estimated for nitrogen oxides (NOx) from all roads. Traffic density was calculated within a 300-m residential buffer. Cardiometabolic health was assessed in adulthood (mean age 24 ± 1.7) based on blood lipids (total cholesterol, high- and low-density lipoprotein [HDL, LDL], triglycerides), glucose metabolism (fasting glucose, fasting insulin, HbA1c), body composition (BMI, android/gynoid ratio [AG ratio], percent body fat), and blood pressure. A PDAY (Pathobiologic Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth) score was generated to evaluate overall cardiometabolic health. Participants' perceived stress was assessed in childhood and adulthood (ages 13 and 24 years, respectively). ResultsResults of mixed effects linear models, adjusted for demographics and smoking status, suggested that each standard deviation increase in childhood exposure to traffic-related total NOx was associated with 0.62 increase in PDAY score (95% Confidence Interval [CI]:0.10,1.14), 0.09% increase in HbA1c (95%CI: 0.04, 0.15), 1.19% increase in percent body fat (95%CI: 0.18, 2.20), and 0.96 kg/m2 increase in BMI (0.11, 1.80) in adulthood. Among participants with higher childhood stress levels, we observed significant associations of traffic-related total NOx with total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, HbA1c, insulin, and BMI. None of these associations were significant among people with lower stress levels. We observed similar statistically significant associations of traffic density. ConclusionLong-term childhood exposure to TRAP in childhood may have lasting adverse impacts on cardiometabolic health, especially for children with higher stress levels.

Examining psychosocial vulnerability in caregivers of individuals with a chronic haematological malignancy. A cross sectional survey.

ObjectiveTo investigate psychosocial vulnerability in informal caregivers of chronic haematological cancer patients and determine the level of psychosocial vulnerability among carers of people living with a CHM. MethodsAn international cross – sectional study including caregivers of individuals with a chronic haematological cancer (n=64) from Ireland (n=29), Australia (n=21), the UK (n=4), the USA (n=4), and India (n=6). Caregivers completed scales for loneliness, resilience, stress and caregiver strain using the UCLA scale, BRS scale, PSS scale and MCSI scale. Descriptive statistics and non-parametric techniques were used. ResultsThe results show that younger carers (aged between 18-40) report higher levels of loneliness, stress and caregiver strain. Carers who have left their paid employment due to caregiving and are in receipt of carers’ allowance or social welfare report high levels of loneliness and caregiver strain. Lower stress levels were reported in those who received paid professional caring support. Finally, higher levels of loneliness in carers were associated with the patient currently being on some form of treatment and higher levels of caregiver strain were associated with caring for someone for more than 8 hours per day and having all social, mental, and financial areas of life affected ConclusionCaregivers of patients with chronic haematological cancers experience psychosocial vulnerability, which is associated with their age, socioeconomic status, gender and health and wellbeing.

Impact of natural views on mental health during COVID-19 quarantine: A natural experiment

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the daily lives of people, and countries worldwide have implemented public health measures that restricted social contact and interactions. Individuals in isolation displayed increased mental health issues, for whom windows are a crucial means of connecting with the outside world. However, few studies have discussed the effect of having a window view on the mental health of individuals in quarantine. This study uses a natural experiment to address this knowledge gap. Between January 27, 2022 and June 19, 2022, individuals in Taiwan who were assigned to quarantine hotel room with various window views were recruited through Facebook groups. Participants completed a baseline assessment at the beginning of their quarantine period that included room and window conditions and mental health conditions, followed by a posttest assessment of the same mental health measures. Questions related to window conditions included the proportions of natural and urban landscapes viewable from their hotel windows, human activities they could observe (flow of people), and their viewshed broadness. Subsequently, this study investigated how visual access to greenness influenced the positive mental health, depression, and stress of the participants before and during quarantine. In total, 81 participants participated. The results of this study indicated that viewing vegetation and the ratio of windows to walls were associated with improved mental health, reduced symptoms of depression, and reduced stress. Specifically, an open view in the room was associated with lower levels of depression (p < 0.001) and stress (p < 0.000). Additionally, viewing people through windows was associated with reduced depressive symptoms (p < 0.006). The results of this study can inform policies for pandemic containment, but also broadly for health care, hospitals, and other related fields.

Career Related Stress among Adolescents

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and mental development that occurs between childhood and adulthood. This transitional involves biological, social and psychological change . Choosing a right career during adolescence is very important. Career development and career plans in adolescence are related to both mental and physical health and can have long-term outcomes. The study Career Related Stress among Adolescent was undertaken purposively in Faizabad city of Uttar Pradesh state. The study was conducted on a sample of 100 adolescent, which are randomly selected for the study. The major objectives were :- . To Check and analyze level of career related stress among adolescent. . To Check and analyze the factors responsible for career related stress among adolescent. . To analyze various stress reducing strategies adapted by adolescent. In the process of investigation, a Scale of Vocational Stress( SVC, from Bisht Battery of Stress Scale ), and a stress coping strategy scale were used. Results highlight that most of the adolescent respondents experienced moderate stress followed by low level of stress and high level of stress. Most of the adolescents adopted moderate to low level of negative coping styles and moderate to high levels of positive coping strategies.

Black, Low-Income Undergraduates’ Perceptions of Course-Related Factors Associated With Reduced Academic Stress at a Predominantly White Institution

Academic stress is a common struggle for learners of all ages. High levels of academic stress can sometimes relate to lower academic outcomes and higher attrition rates. Black college students at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) face unique stressors such as discrimination and imposter syndrome. Being low-income can carry added stressors associated with a lack of access to resources. Prior literature indicates that support and stronger relationships with faculty are associated with lower stress levels and higher academic success. The purpose of this study was to develop a better understanding of course-related factors that reduce academic stress among Black, low-income undergraduates at a PWI. Interviews with 19 Black undergraduates recruited from a department that servees low-income, first-generation students revealed a set of interrelated factors that produce greater feelings of support, relatedness, and competence, which aligns with a reduction in stressful experiences. A thematic analysis was used to create descriptive categories and produce a visual representation of these factors. Implications for university staff and faculty are discussed.

A measure for perceived social support for university students: Implication for campus leaders

Social support plays a crucial role in an individual's life. Individuals who experience strong, positive social relationships and feel supported by others tend to report lower levels of anxiety, depression, and psychological stress. Social support may come from family members, friends, and significant others in life. Looking at the importance of social support in university students’ lives, there have been a few scales to measure social support, and one of them is the Multidimensional Perceived Social Support Scale, which was developed in a Western country. This study examined the validity of the Malay version of the Multidimensional Perceived Social Support Scale in a sample of 443 Malaysian university students. Results support the high reliability and validity of this scale. Confirmatory factor analysis reported the expected three-factor structure and a high correlation between factors and scales. In addition, internal consistency was good, and correlation analysis with the Satisfaction with Life Scale proved the theoretical relations among the constructs. The findings suggest that MPSS-M is a reliable and valid tool to measure social support among students in higher education institutions. Campus leaders and student affairs professionals may use the scale to identify the source of support among students. Implication for university management is also discussed.

Examining the applicability of virtual battle space for stress management training in military personnel-A validation study.

Military personnel are often exposed to high levels of both physical and psychological challenges in their work environment and therefore it is important to be trained on how to handle stressful situations. The primary aim of this study was to examine whether military-specific virtual battle space (VBS) scenarios could elicit a physiological and subjective stress response in healthy military personnel, as compared to that of a virtual reality height exposure (VR-HE) stress task that has shown to reliably increase stress levels. Twenty participants engaged in two VBS scenarios and the VR-HE during separate sessions, while measurements of heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), respiration rate, and subjective stress levels were collected. Contrary to our initial expectations, analysis revealed that neither of the VBS scenarios induced a significant stress response, as indicated by stable HR, HRV, and low subjective stress levels. However, the VR-HE task did elicit a significant physiological stress response, evidenced by increased HR and HRV changes, aligning with previous research findings. Moreover, no discernible alterations were detected in cognitive performance subsequent to these stressors. These results suggest that the current VBS scenarios, despite their potential, may not be effective for stress-related training activities within military settings. The absence of a significant stress response in the VBS conditions points to the need for more immersive and engaging scenarios. By integrating interactive and demanding elements, as well as physical feedback systems and real-time communication, VBS training might better mimic real-world stressors and improve stress resilience in military personnel. The findings of this study have broader implications for stress research and training, suggesting the need for scenario design improvements in virtual training environments to effectively induce stress and improve stress management across various high-stress professions.

Insights into enhanced learning through virtual reality

IntroductionThis study investigates the impact of Immersive Virtual Reality (VR) on learning outcomes in radiography training using Virtual Medical Coaching's X-Ray Pro VR software. VR offers immersive experiential learning that may enhance academic performance and professional preparedness. MethodsThe study involved 130 students from two consecutive cohorts: one using traditional training methods and the other using VR software. We employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating quantitative measures of academic performance and clinical competency with qualitative insights into student engagement, enjoyment, and stress levels. The VR group used Virtual Medical Coaching simulation software, while the traditional group used physical simulation machines (Siemens Healthineers) to practice positioning anthropomorphic manikins, adjusting exposure settings, and handling X-ray equipment. Data were collected at four points: immediately post-training and at 1 month, 3 months, and 8 months follow-up. ResultsThe VR cohort showed significantly higher knowledge retention, work readiness, and lower stress levels compared to the traditional cohort. Among the participants trained in VR, a vast majority (59 out of 65) reported a high level of satisfaction with the immersive nature of the training, emphasizing its realism and direct applicability to clinical scenarios. Quantitative analysis revealed superior performance metrics for the VR group across all measured time points (p < 0.001). Qualitative feedback highlighted enhanced engagement and enjoyment among VR-trained students. ConclusionThe results of this study clearly indicate that VR training significantly enhances learning outcomes in radiography education. The VR cohort exhibited higher knowledge retention, work readiness, student engagement, and enjoyment, along with lower stress levels and higher confidence compared to the traditional cohort. These findings support the integration of VR into professional training curricula to improve student performance and engagement.

Impact of augmentation strategy variations on the mechanical characteristics of patients with osteoporotic proximal humerus fractures with medial column instability.

Low bone density and lack of medial support are the two most important factors affecting the stability of locking plate fixation for osteoporotic proximal humeral fractures (PHFs). This study aimed to compare the biomechanical characteristics of PHILOS locking plates combined with calcar screws, bone cement, fibular allografts, and medial locking plate support strategies for treating osteoporotic PHFs with medial column instability. A three-part osteoporotic PHF (AO 11-B3.2) model with metaphyseal loss was generated using 40 synthetic humeri and fixed via four distinct medial support strategies. All models were mechanically tested to quantify the mechanical characteristics. Subsequently, finite element models were created for each biomechanical test case. The stress distribution and displacement of the four different fixation structures were analyzed using finite element analysis. The results demonstrated that the PHILOS locking plate combined with the medial locking plate, exhibited the greatest stability when subjected to axial, shear, and torsional loading. Furthermore, the PHILOS locking plate combined with bone cement showed structural stability similar to that of the PHILOS locking plate combined with fibular allograft but with lower stress levels on the fracture surface. In conclusion, the PLP-MLP fixation structure showed superior biomechanical properties under axial, shear, and torsional loading compared to other medial support methods. Repairing the medial support when treating osteoporotic PHFs with medial column instability can enhance the mechanical stability of the fracture end in both the short and long term.

Bullying Prevention Practices and Child Stress in Public Elementary Schools

This quantitative study employed surveys to assess the extent of bullying prevention efforts from schools and parents, and to measure levels of child stress in terms of distress, lack of well-being, and absence of social support. The sample consisted of students from multiple public elementary schools. Data were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, correlation coefficients, and regression analysis. The study found that both school and parental bullying prevention efforts were very extensive. Child stress levels were generally low across various indicators. A significant negative relationship was found between bullying prevention practices and child stress, indicating that effective prevention efforts are associated with reduced stress levels in children. Both school-based and parental efforts were identified as significant predictors in reducing child stress. The findings suggest that comprehensive bullying prevention efforts are effective in reducing child stress. The study emphasizes the importance of a multi-faceted approach involving both schools and parents in bullying prevention programs. The study concludes that effective bullying prevention practices are associated with lower levels of child stress, highlighting the need for collaborative efforts between schools and parents. Recommendations are made for researchers, the Department of Education, school heads, and teachers to enhance bullying prevention programs.

The Role of Surrendering to God in Reducing Work-Related Stress Among Office Workers

Abstract Background:Work-related stress is a common mental health concern among office workers. Surrendering to God during work activities may help prevent or reduce the risk of work-related stress. Objectives:This study aims to examine the correlation between surrendering to God and work-related stress among office workers at the Head Office of Company X. Methods:A cross-sectional study design was used in this research. A total of 149 respondents were selected through simple random sampling. Results:The study found that 24.5% of workers experience work-related stress. It also revealed that higher levels of surrendering to God as measured by dimensions such as effort (ikhtiar), patience, gratitude, acceptance of fate, and faith in God are significantly correlated with lower levels of work-related stress among office workers. Conclusion:It is crucial to promote and enhance the practice of surrendering to God in work environments to help prevent work-related stress among office workers. Organizing training to improve employees' emotional and spiritual management capacities is vital for maintaining their mental health. Keywords:surrendering to god; work-related stress; office workers

Assessing swelling-induced damage in shale samples during triaxial testing

In shale testing, understanding the impact of effective stress and saturation conditions is crucial for accurate material behaviour assessment and parameter determination. In some cases, saturation in triaxial testing starts at low effective stress before ramping up for shearing. However, when in contact with water (or saline water), shales are prone to swelling, particularly at low effective stress levels, which can induce fissures and alter material properties. This study investigates the influence of fluid saturation strategies and stress/pressure variations on the mechanical behaviour of shales, particularly under low effective confinement. Building upon the comprehensive testing campaign (>140 tests) in Crisci et al. (2024), additional tests were conducted on Opalinus Clay shale, focusing on sample saturation methods and loading histories before shearing. The conditions under which tested specimens experience damage were detected through diagnostic indicators such as differences in stress path and lower strength and stiffness compared to intact specimens with identical basic properties. Micro CT scanning confirms that damage is related to the development of fissures. The volumetric changes in specimens were quantified throughout the testing phases and thresholds for tolerable strains and effective stresses, specific to this material, were established. Comparative analysis with Opalinus Clay from shallower depths and other shales globally revealed consistent findings. Notably, it is shown that, for all shale types analyzed, a linear failure envelope emerges in the low to intermediate effective stress regime when filtering out "damaged" specimens. This suggests that non-linear failure envelopes observed in some cases may stem from exposing specimens to low effective stress before shearing.

The potential benefit of artificial intelligence regarding clinical decision-making in the treatment of wrist trauma patients

PurposeThe implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) in health care is gaining popularity. Many publications describe powerful AI-enabled algorithms. Yet there’s only scarce evidence for measurable value in terms of patient outcomes, clinical decision-making or socio-economic impact. Our aim was to investigate the significance of AI in the emergency treatment of wrist trauma patients.MethodTwo groups of physicians were confronted with twenty realistic cases of wrist trauma patients and had to find the correct diagnosis and provide a treatment recommendation. One group was assisted by an AI-enabled application which detects and localizes distal radius fractures (DRF) with near-to-perfect precision while the other group had no help. Primary outcome measurement was diagnostic accuracy. Secondary outcome measurements were required time, number of added CT scans and senior consultations, correctness of the treatment, subjective and objective stress levels.ResultsThe AI-supported group was able to make a diagnosis without support (no additional CT, no senior consultation) in significantly more of the cases than the control group (75% vs. 52%, p = 0.003). The AI-enhanced group detected DRF with superior sensitivity (1.00 vs. 0.96, p = 0.06) and specificity (0.99 vs. 0.93, p = 0.17), used significantly less additional CT scans to reach the correct diagnosis (14% vs. 28%, p = 0.02) and was subjectively significantly less stressed (p = 0.05).ConclusionThe results indicate that physicians can diagnose wrist trauma more accurately and faster when aided by an AI-tool that lessens the need for extra diagnostic procedures. The AI-tool also seems to lower physicians' stress levels while examining cases. We anticipate that these benefits will be amplified in larger studies as skepticism towards the new technology diminishes.

Cumulative risk and adolescent emotional distress: A longitudinal moderated mediation analysis focusing on perceived stress and social support.

This study provides insights into the roles played by perceived stress and social support in the relationship between cumulative risk exposure (CRE) and adolescent emotional distress. Preregistered longitudinal moderated mediation analyses were used to test hypotheses relating to the association between CRE and later emotional distress; the mediating role of perceived stress in the relationship between CRE and later emotional distress; and, the moderating effects of peer and adult-level family support on the relationship between CRE and later perceived stress, among N = 19,159 adolescents over three annual waves (at ages 11/12, 12/13, 13/14). Analyses revealed that CRE significantly predicted later adolescent emotional distress. This relationship was partially mediated by perceived stress. Both peer and adult-level family support significantly moderated the impact of CRE on later perceived stress (i.e., adolescents reporting higher levels of support perceived significantly lower levels of stress resulting from CRE compared to those reporting lower levels of support). These findings provide critical empirical evidence of the roles played by perceived stress and social support in the relationship between CRE and adolescent emotional distress, with consequent implications for intervention.

Longitudinal-Torsional Frequency Coupling Design of Novel Ultrasonic Horns for Giant Magnetostrictive Transducers.

The use of advanced brittle composites in engineering systems has necessitated robotic rotary ultrasonic machining to attain high precision with minimal machining defects such as delamination, burrs, and cracks. Longitudinal-torsional coupled (LTC) vibrations are created by introducing helical slots to a horn's profile to enhance the quality of ultrasonic machining. In this investigative research, modified ultrasonic horns were designed for a giant magnetostrictive transducer by generating helical slots in catenoidal and cubic polynomial profiles to attain a high amplitude ratio (TA/LA) and low stress concentrations. Novel ultrasonic horns with a giant magnetostrictive transducer were modelled to compute impedances and harmonic excitation responses. A structural dynamic analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of the location, width, depth and angle of helical slots on the Eigenfrequencies, torsional vibration amplitude, longitudinal vibration amplitude, stresses and amplitude ratio in novel LTC ultrasonic horns for different materials using the finite element method (FEM) based on the block Lanczos and full-solution methods. The newly designed horns achieved a higher amplitude ratio and lower stresses in comparison to the Bezier and industrial stepped LTC horns with the same length, end diameters and operating conditions. The novel cubic polynomial LTC ultrasonic horn was found superior to its catenoidal counterpart as a result of an 8.45% higher amplitude ratio. However, the catenoidal LTC ultrasonic horn exhibited 1.87% lower stress levels. The position of the helical slots was found to have the most significant influence on the vibration characteristics of LTC ultrasonic horns followed by the width, depth and angle. This high amplitude ratio will contribute to the improved vibration characteristics that will help realize good surface morphology when machining advanced materials.

Investigations of Metallurgical Differences in AISI 347 and Their Influence on Deformation and Transformation Behaviour and Resulting Fatigue Life.

Due to variations in chemical composition and production processes, homonymous austenitic stainless steels can differ significantly regarding their initial microstructure, metastability, and thus, their fatigue behavior. Microstructural investigations and fatigue tests have been performed in order to evaluate this aspect. Three different batches and production forms of nominally one type of steel AISI 347 were investigated under monotonic tensile tests and cyclic loading under total strain and stress control in low and high cycle fatigue regimes, respectively. The deformation induced α'-martensite formation was investigated globally by means of in situ magnetic measurements and locally using optical light microscopy of color etching of micrographs. The investigation showed that the chemical composition and the different production processes influence the material behavior. In fatigue tests, a higher metastability and thus a higher level of deformation induced α'-martensite pronounced cyclic hardening, resulting in significantly greater endurable stresses in total strain-controlled tests and an increase in fatigue life in stress-controlled tests. For applications of non-destructive-testing, detailed knowledge of a component's metastability is required. In less metastable batches and for lower stress levels, α'-martensite primarily formed at the plasticization zone of a crack. Furthermore, the formation and nucleation points of α'-martensite were highly dependent on grain size and the presence of δ-ferrite. This study provides valuable insights into the different material behavior of three different batches with the same designation, i.e., AISI 347, due to different manufacturing processes and differences in the chemical composition, metastability, and microstructure.

Neurosciences and Emotional States of Latin American University Professors in the Post-Covid-19 Pandemic Stage

The article aimed to determine the relationship between neuroscience and emotional states in university faculty members from Latin America during the post-pandemic stage of COVID-19. It highlights the importance of understanding emotions from a neuroscientific perspective to develop strategies that enhance emotional management and resilience in the educational context. The descriptive-correlational research included a sample of 318 faculty members from various Latin American countries. The results revealed severe levels of stress (88.4%) and anxiety (92.1%), as well as inadequate (40.9%) or moderate (46.9%) levels of resilience among the faculty members. A strong positive correlation was found between neuroscience and emotional states (rho=0.860), as well as a good positive correlation between neuroscience and resilience (rho=0.739). The study concludes that the knowledge and application of neuroscience principles could contribute to lower levels of stress and anxiety and increase resilience in university faculty members, emphasizing the importance of integrating these disciplines into the understanding and management of emotions in the educational field.

The Impact of Learning Strategies on Psychological Well-being and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case Study at Hanoi Metropolitan University, Vietnam

This study investigates the impact of learning strategies on the psychological well-being and academic performance of university students at Hanoi Metropolitan University, Vietnam. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the research combines quantitative data from a cross-sectional survey and qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal that students who frequently employ cognitive strategies, such as elaboration and organization, and metacognitive strategies, including self-monitoring and goal-setting, report lower levels of stress, anxiety, and depression, and achieve higher academic performance. Quantitative results show a significant difference in GPA between high and low users of these strategies, with a notable reduction in psychological distress among frequent users. Qualitative data further support these findings, highlighting the benefits of strategic learning in managing academic stress and enhancing academic outcomes. The study suggests that educational institutions should integrate training on these strategies into their curricula to improve both student well-being and academic success.

A U-shaped relationship between chronic academic stress and the dynamics of reward processing

Despite the potential link between stress-induced reward dysfunctions and the development of mental problems, limited human research has investigated the specific impacts of chronic stress on the dynamics of reward processing. Here we aimed to investigate the relationship between chronic academic stress and the dynamics of reward processing (i.e., reward anticipation and reward consumption) using event-related potential (ERP) technology. Ninety healthy undergraduates who were preparing for the National Postgraduate Entrance Examination (NPEE) participated in the study and completed a two-door reward task, their chronic stress levels were assessed via the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The results showed that a lower magnitude of reward elicited more negative amplitudes of cue-N2 during the anticipatory phase, and reward omission elicited more negative amplitudes of FRN compared to reward delivery especially in high reward conditions during the consummatory phase. More importantly, the PSS score exhibited a U-shaped relationship with cue-N2 amplitudes regardless of reward magnitude during the anticipatory phase; and FRN amplitudes toward reward omission in high reward condition during the consummatory phase. These findings suggest that individuals exposed to either low or high levels of chronic stress, as opposed to moderate stress levels, exhibited a heightened reward anticipation, and an augmented violation of expectations or affective response when faced with relatively more negative outcomes.