Lower Catastrophizing Research Articles

Cut-Off Points for Mild, Moderate, and Severe Pain on the Numeric Rating Scale for Pain in Patients with Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain: Variability and Influence of Sex and Catastrophizing.

Objectives: The 0–10 Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) is often used in pain management. The aims of our study were to determine the cut-off points for mild, moderate, and severe pain in terms of pain-related interference with functioning in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain, to measure the variability of the optimal cut-off points, and to determine the influence of patients’ catastrophizing and their sex on these cut-off points.Methods: 2854 patients were included. Pain was assessed by the NRS, functioning by the Pain Disability Index (PDI) and catastrophizing by the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS). Cut-off point schemes were tested using ANOVAs with and without using the PSC scores or sex as co-variates and with the interaction between CP scheme and PCS score and sex, respectively. The variability of the optimal cut-off point schemes was quantified using bootstrapping procedure.Results and conclusion: The study showed that NRS scores ≤ 5 correspond to mild, scores of 6–7 to moderate and scores ≥8 to severe pain in terms of pain-related interference with functioning. Bootstrapping analysis identified this optimal NRS cut-off point scheme in 90% of the bootstrapping samples. The interpretation of the NRS is independent of sex, but seems to depend on catastrophizing. In patients with high catastrophizing tendency, the optimal cut-off point scheme equals that for the total study sample, but in patients with a low catastrophizing tendency, NRS scores ≤ 3 correspond to mild, scores of 4–6 to moderate and scores ≥7 to severe pain in terms of interference with functioning. In these optimal cut-off schemes, NRS scores of 4 and 5 correspond to moderate interference with functioning for patients with low catastrophizing tendency and to mild interference for patients with high catastrophizing tendency. Theoretically one would therefore expect that among the patients with NRS scores 4 and 5 there would be a higher average PDI score for those with low catastrophizing than for those with high catastrophizing. However, we found the opposite. The fact that we did not find the same optimal CP scheme in the subgroups with lower and higher catastrophizing tendency may be due to chance variability.

Multidimensional Neuropathic Pain Phenotypes after Spinal Cord Injury.

Identifying clinical neuropathic pain phenotypes is a first step to better understand the underlying pain mechanisms after spinal cord injury (SCI). The primary purpose of the present study was to characterize multidimensional neuropathic pain phenotypes based on quantitative sensory testing (QST), pain intensity, and utilization of catastrophizing coping strategies. Thermal perception, thermal pain, and vibratory perception thresholds were assessed above and below the level of injury (LOI) in 101 persons with SCI and neuropathic pain, 18 persons with SCI and no neuropathic pain, and 50 able-bodied, pain-free controls. Cluster analysis of QST z-scores below the LOI, pain intensity ratings, and the Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CSQ) catastrophizing subscale scores in subjects with neuropathic pain resulted in two phenotypes: severe neuropathic pain (SNP) with greater pain intensity (7.39 ± 1.57) and thermal and vibratory sensitivity compared with the moderate neuropathic pain (MNP; 5.40 ± 1.43). A factor analysis including all CSQ subscales, the Neuropathic Pain Symptom Inventory (NPSI) total score, and thermal pain sensitivity above and below the LOI resulted in three factors: (1) adaptive pain coping including increasing activities, diverting attention, and reinterpreting pain sensations; (2) catastrophizing, neuropathic pain, and thermal sensitivity including greater NPSI total score, thermal pain sensitivity below the LOI, and catastrophizing; and (3) general pain sensitivity including greater thermal pain sensitivity above the LOI and lower catastrophizing. Our results suggest that neuropathic pain symptom severity post-SCI is significantly associated with residual spinothalamic tract function below the LOI and catastrophizing pain coping.

Pain Catastrophizing for Patients with Temporomandibular Disorders

Purpose: Besides depression and anxiety, recently pain catastrophizing has been emphasized for an important psychological factor explaining pain response in various pain conditions including temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). The aims of this study were to evaluate pain catastrophizing of TMD patients and to investigate how the level of pain catastrophizing related with clinical variables and psychometric morbidity. Methods: Inclusion criterion was all new TMD patients ≥18 years old attending the Department of Orofacial Pain and Oral Medicine of Dankook University Dental Hospital (Cheonan, Korea) over three-month period in 2014, who completed questionnaires. The questionnaires included the Brief Pain Inventory (BPI), Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), and Symptom Check List-90-Revised (SCL-90-R). All of them were examined clinically and diagnosed. Results: One hundred fifty five patients diagnosed as TMDs were participated in this study (mean age of 38.7±15.2 years, male:female=1:2.5). Mean PCS score of the patients was 17.3 with standard deviation of 12.6. By the median of the PCS score (i.e., 15), the subjects were categorized into the high (≥15) and low catastrophizers (＜15). Increased pain severity and interference and increased score of psychological features of SCL-90-R were found in the TMD patients with higher level of catastrophizing (p＜0.001) and there was weak to moderate correlation between those factors (p＜0.05). Difference in catastrophizing level was not found for other variables such as age, gender, duration of pain, education level and types of TMDs. Conclusions: Conclusively, pain catastrophizing of TMD patients relates positively to pain severity and pain interference. In addition to depression and anxiety, pain catastrophizing is positively correlated with variable other psychological morbidity such as somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, paranoid ideation and psychoticism. Types of TMD diagnosis do not seem to affect catastrophizing level. The results of this study suggest that pain catastrophizing should be emphasized and assessed in the TMD patients.

Attention allocation to ambiguous health/somatic threat cues.

An influential idea is that attentional bias to information related to pain or pain-related negative affect underlies persistent pain problems. Such information is however often ambiguous. If ambiguous input is perceived as pain or threat related, attention to this stimulus would be enhanced compared with stimuli with no (dominant) pain-/threat-related meaning. Attentional bias to ambiguous stimuli related to somatic/health threat was expected to be more pronounced with higher levels of pain catastrophizing. University students performed a spatial cueing task including four types of word cues that were combinations of word content (somatic/health threat vs. non-threat), and word ambiguity (unambiguous vs. ambiguous), each presented for 500 or 750 ms. Attentional bias to somatic/health threat is reflected in larger cue validity effects for somatic/heath threat words than for non-threat words. In the 500-ms condition, cue validity effects were larger for threat than for non-threat words in participants reporting low catastrophizing, but did not depend on word content in participants reporting higher catastrophizing. In the 750-ms condition, cue validity effects did not depend on pain catastrophizing or word content. Cue validity effects did not significantly differ between unambiguous words and ambiguous homographs. Low catastrophizers demonstrated attentional bias to threat content. Participants reporting higher catastrophizing showed overall enhanced attentional orienting. There was no evidence for differences in (biased) attention to unambiguous and ambiguous words. Further research is needed to determine attentional bias for ambiguous pain-/threat-related stimuli in the context of consistent attentional bias for unambiguous pain-/threat-related stimuli.

Changes in Catastrophizing and Depressed Mood During and After Early Cognitive Behaviorally Oriented Interventions for Pain

Catastrophizing and depressed mood are risk factors for poor outcome in treatments for pain and appear to act as mediators for favorable outcome. However, little is known about how catastrophizing and depressed mood co-occur within individuals and how these patterns change during treatment, which is the focus of the current study. The study uses data from a randomized controlled trial about early cognitive behaviorally oriented interventions for patients with nonspecific spinal pain (N = 84). Cluster analyses were used to extract subgroups of individuals with similar scoring patterns on catastrophizing and depressed mood at pretreatment, mid-treatment, posttreatment, and at 6 months' follow-up. To track individual progress, the clusters were linked over time. The analyses revealed four clusters: “low depression and catastrophizing”, “high depression and catastrophizing”, “high depression”, and “high catastrophizing”. There was little individual transition from one scoring pattern to another across time, not at least for those scoring high on both depressed mood and catastrophizing. Moreover, high stability within this cluster was related to low levels of psychological flexibility at baseline. It is concluded that catastrophizing and depressed mood at the start of treatment were likely to remain high despite a cognitive behavioral intervention and that a lack of psychological flexibility may have a role.

The relationship between parental catastrophizing about child pain and distress in response to medical procedures in the context of childhood cancer treatment: a longitudinal analysis.

Children with leukemia frequently undergo invasive medical procedures, such as lumbar punctures (LPs) and bone marrow aspirations (BMAs). To date, cross-sectional evidence indicates that LP/BMA procedures continue to elicit distress over the course of treatment in children and parents. The current study used prospective analyses investigating in 28 children diagnosed with leukemia, the course of parental and child distress when confronted with consecutive LP/BMA procedures and potential moderation by catastrophic thinking. Parents' level of catastrophic thoughts was assessed before the first treatment-related LP/BMA, while child and parent distress was reported on after each LP/BMA procedure. Whereas parental distress decreased over time among low catastrophizing parents, LP/BMA procedures remained highly distressing for high catastrophizing parents. Child distress during LP/BMA procedures increased over time and was positively related with parental distress. These findings stress the importance of targeting child and parent distress as early as possible in treatment.

Catastrophizing—a prognostic factor for outcome in patients with low back pain: a systematic review

Background contextPsychological factors including catastrophizing thoughts are believed to influence the development of chronic low back pain (LBP). PurposeTo assess the prognostic importance of catastrophizing as a coping strategy in patients with LBP. Study designThis is a systematic review. Patient sampleThis study included patients with LBP. Outcome measuresWork-related outcomes and perceived measures including return to work, pain, and disability. MethodsIn September 2012, the following databases were searched: BIOSIS, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Embase, OTSeeker, PeDRO, PsycInfo, Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science. To ensure completeness of the search, a hand search and a search of bibliographies were conducted and all relevant references included. All observational studies investigating the prognostic value of catastrophizing in patients with LBP were eligible. Included were studies with 100 and more patients and follow-up of at least 3 months. Excluded were studies with poor methodological quality, short follow-up duration, and small sample size. ResultsA total of 1,473 references were retrieved, and 706 references remained after the removal of duplicates. For 77 references, the full text was assessed and 19 publications based on 16 studies were included. Of four studies that investigated work-related outcomes, two found catastrophizing to be associated with work status. Most studies that investigated self-reported outcome measures (n=8, 66%) found catastrophizing to be associated with pain and disability at follow-up in acute, subacute, and chronic LBP patients. In most studies that applied cutoff values, patients identified as high catastrophizers experienced a worse outcome compared with low catastrophizers (n=5, 83%). ConclusionsThere is some evidence that catastrophizing as a coping strategy might lead to delayed recovery. The influence of catastrophizing in patients with LBP is not fully established and should be further investigated. Of particular importance is the establishment of cutoff levels for identifying patients at risk.

Gene expression profiles of fatigued fibromyalgia patients with different categories of pain and catastrophizing: A preliminary report

BackgroundFibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic condition characterized by diffused musculoskeletal pain and overwhelming fatigue. PurposeTo compare the gene expression profiles of fatigued FM women with different levels of pain and catastrophizing. MethodsNine women with FM enrolled in an active Medstar Research Institute protocol were included in the gene expression analyses of peripheral blood RNA via Affymetrix GeneChip Human Genome U133 Plus 2.0 array (Santa Clara, CA). Scores from Brief Pain Inventory, Pain Catastrophizing Scale, and Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory categorized the nine participants into pain (high, n = 3; low, n = 6) and catastrophizing groups (high, n = 5; low, n = 4). DiscussionDifferential expression of 107 genes between the high and low pain groups and 139 genes between the high and low catastrophizing groups (over 2.0-fold change, p < .05) were observed. Network analyses showed interferon signaling and interferon regulatory activation factor pathways distinguished between the pain groups whereas dendritic cell maturation delineated between the catastrophizing groups. ConclusionFindings provide preliminary evidence that specific physiological pathways may possibly delineate pain and catastrophizing mechanisms. Further investigation via the use of a larger and more homogenous sample is warranted.

Changes in Pain Catastrophizing Following Physical Therapy for Musculoskeletal Injury: The Influence of Depressive and Post-traumatic Stress Symptoms

The aim of the present study was to investigate the factors that influence the change in pain catastrophizing during the course of a physical therapy intervention for musculoskeletal injury. 187 clients enrolled in a 7-week physical therapy intervention were divided into four mutually exclusive groups on the basis of a pre-treatment assessment: (1) clients whose pre-treatment catastrophizing scores and measures of mental health problems were below clinical threshold, (2) clients whose pre-treatment catastrophizing scores were above clinical threshold but who scores on measures of mental health problems were below clinical threshold, (3) clients whose pre-treatment catastrophizing scores were above clinical threshold and whose scores on measures of mental health problems were also above clinical threshold, and (4) clients whose pre-treatment catastrophizing scores were below clinical threshold but whose scores on measures of mental health problems were above clinical threshold. The most prevalent risk profile consisted of clients with high levels of pain catastrophizing and high mental health problems (37 %), followed by the low catastrophizing and low mental health problems profile (35 %), the high catastrophizing and low mental health problems profile (16 %), and low catastrophizing and high mental health problems profile (10 %). Clients were considered non-responders if their post-treatment catastrophizing score remained above clinical threshold following treatment. Chi square analyses revealed a significantly higher proportion of non-responders in the high catastrophizing and mental health problem group than in any other group. The presence of mental health symptoms markedly reduces the effectiveness of physical therapy for reducing catastrophizing scores. The 'risk value' of high catastrophizing scores thus appears to vary as a function of the presence or absence of mental health symptoms. The findings argue for the inclusion of measures of mental health problems in the routine screening of individuals treated in physical therapy.

Attentional processing of other’s facial display of pain: An eye tracking study

The present study investigated the role of observer pain catastrophizing and personal pain experience as possible moderators of attention to varying levels of facial pain expression in others. Eye movements were recorded as a direct and continuous index of attention allocation in a sample of 35 undergraduate students while viewing slides presenting picture pairs consisting of a neutral face combined with either a low, moderate, or high expressive pain face. Initial orienting of attention was measured as latency and duration of first fixation to 1 of 2 target images (i.e., neutral face vs pain face). Attentional maintenance was measured by gaze duration. With respect to initial orienting to pain, findings indicated that participants reporting low catastrophizing directed their attention more quickly to pain faces than to neutral faces, with fixation becoming increasingly faster with increasing levels of facial pain expression. In comparison, participants reporting high levels of catastrophizing showed decreased tendency to initially orient to pain faces, fixating equally quickly on neutral and pain faces. Duration of the first fixation revealed no significant effects. With respect to attentional maintenance, participants reporting high catastrophizing and pain intensity demonstrated significantly longer gaze duration for all face types (neutral and pain expression), relative to low catastrophizing counterparts. Finally, independent of catastrophizing, higher reported pain intensity contributed to decreased attentional maintenance to pain faces vs neutral faces. Theoretical implications and further research directions are discussed.

The Expression of Pain Behaviors in High Catastrophizers: The Influence of Automatic and Controlled Processes

In the present study, patients with musculoskeletal pain conditions (n = 55) were filmed while performing a lifting task designed to elicit pain behaviors. Patients were asked to perform the lifting task twice, under 2 distinct conditions. In the first condition, patients were asked to rate their pain while lifting a series of weights. In the second condition, patients were asked to estimate the weight of the objects they lifted. The weight estimation condition was conceived as a way to increase the cognitive load associated with the lifting task. The primary purpose of the present study was to examine whether manipulation of cognitive load differentially influenced the expression of pain behaviors in high and low catastrophizers. During the pain rating condition, results indicated that high catastrophizers displayed significantly higher levels of communicative and protective pain behaviors than low catastrophizers. During the weight estimation condition, however, high and low catastrophizers no longer differed in the expression of communicative pain behaviors. These results suggest that increasing cognitive load during a pain-eliciting task may interfere with the expression of communicative pain behaviors in high catastrophizers. The discussion addresses the potential role of automatic and cognitive control processes in the expression of pain behaviors. PerspectiveThe present study provides new insights into the processes that might underlie the expression of pain behaviors in patients with high levels of catastrophizing. Our findings could have implications for the management of patients presenting with pain conditions, particularly those with high levels of catastrophizing.

Parent/child catastrophizing matches and mismatches: the effect on pain, symptoms, and disability

Catastrophizing is a cognitive coping style that significantly relates to pain in adults, children, and their parents. Greater catastrophizing by parents and children is linked to poor outcomes for pediatric chronic pain patients. However, the interaction of parent and child catastrophizing styles, i.e., the degree to which they are matched or mismatched, and the effect that has on pediatric outcomes has not been investigated. 341 parent and child dyads were recruited at their initial evaluation at a pediatric chronic pain clinic. Parents and children completed the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), a reliable and valid measure assessing parents' and children's degree of rumination, magnification, and helplessness about children's pain. Measures were summed and a median split was conducted, creating low and high catastrophizing groups for parents and children. Four parent/child groups were created: two groups of matched parent/child catastrophizing styles, low/low and high/high; and two mismatched groups of parent/child catastrophizing styles, low child/high parent, and high child/low parent. Analyses of variance were conducted for parent/child catastrophizing group by outcome: pain intensity, somatic symptoms, and disability. Outcomes were measured by child report on the Numeric Rating Scale, Child Somatization Inventory, and Functional Disability Inventory. Analyses revealed significant main effects of group by outcome for all variables; post hoc tests showed the matched high/high parent/child catastrophizing group demonstrated the worst child outcomes, with greater pain, symptoms, and disability than the mismatched groups (high child/low parent and low child/high parent), which were in turn greater than the low/low matched group, which had the best outcomes of all. In summary, shared high catastrophizing styles between children and parents may enhance the negative effect of catastrophizing on outcomes. Conversely, the effect of a high catastrophizing parent or child on outcomes may be buffered when the other member of the dyad has a low catastrophizing style.

Catastrophizers with Chronic Pain Display more Pain Behaviour when in a Relationship with a Low Catastrophizing Spouse

The present study examined the relationship between couple concordance of catastrophizing and adverse pain outcomes. Possible mechanisms underlying the relationship between couple concordance of catastrophizing and pain outcomes were also explored. Fifty-eight couples were recruited for the study. The chronic pain patients were filmed while lifting a series of weighted canisters. The spouse was later invited to view the video and answer questions about the pain experience of their partner. Median splits on Pain Catastrophizing Scale scores were used to create four 'catastrophizing concordance' groups: low catastrophizing patient-low catastrophizing spouse; low catastrophizing patient-high catastrophizing spouse; high catastrophizing patient-low catastrophizing spouse; and high catastrophizing patient-high catastrophizing spouse. Analyses revealed that high catastrophizing pain patients who were in a relationship with a low catastrophizing spouse displayed more pain behaviours than patients in all other groups. These findings suggest that high catastrophizing chronic pain patients may need to increase the 'volume' of pain communication to compensate for low catastrophizing spouses' tendency to underestimate the severity of their pain experience. Patients' perceived solicitousness and punitive response from the spouse could not explain the group differences in pain behaviour. Theoretical and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

The role of motivation in distracting attention away from pain: An experimental study

Research on the effectiveness of distraction as a method of pain control is inconclusive. One mechanism pertains to the motivational relevance of distraction tasks. In this study the motivation to engage in a distraction task during pain was experimentally manipulated. Undergraduate students (N=73) participated in a cold pressor test (CPT) and were randomly assigned to three groups: a distraction-only group performed a tone-detection task during the CPT, a motivated-distraction group performed the same task and received a monetary reward for good task performance, and a control group did not perform the tone-detection task. Results indicated that engagement in the distraction task was better in the motivated-distraction group in comparison with the distraction-only group. Participants in both distraction groups experienced less pain compared to the control group. There were no overall differences in pain intensity between the two distraction groups. The effect of distraction was influenced by the level of catastrophic thinking about pain. For low catastrophizers, both distraction groups reported less pain as compared to the non-distracted control group. This was not the case for high catastrophizers. For high catastrophizers it mattered whether the distraction task was motivationally relevant: high catastrophizers reported less intense pain in the motivated-distraction group, as compared to the non-distracted control group. We conclude that increasing the motivational relevance of the distraction task may increase the effects of distraction, especially for those who catastrophize about pain.

Spinal Cord Injury Pain: The Influence of Psychologic Factors and Impact on Quality of Life

To examine chronic pain prevalence in a spinal cord injury (SCI) population, and to determine the influence of psychologic factors on SCI pain and impact of SCI pain on quality of life. Five hundred seventy-five persons with SCI were asked to participate in the study. Demographic, SCI, and pain characteristics were obtained. The Chronic Pain Grade, anger items of the Profile of Mood States, Illness Cognition Questionnaire, Pain Coping and Cognition List, and Patient Health Questionnaire were used. General health and well-being were assessed with 0-10 scales. The influence of psychologic factors was assessed with regression analyses controlling for person and injury characteristics and pain intensity. Response rate was 49%. SCI pain prevalence was high (77.1%). More internal pain control and coping, less catastrophizing, higher level of lesion, and nontraumatic SCI cause were associated with less pain intensity. More pain was associated with higher pain-related disability. Lower catastrophizing was related to better health. Less SCI helplessness and catastrophizing, greater SCI acceptance and lower anger levels were related to higher well-being. Higher levels of SCI helplessness, catastrophizing, and anger were related to higher depression levels. Pain intensity showed no independent relationships with health, well-being, and depression in the regression analyses. Chronic SCI pain and quality of life were both largely associated with several psychologic factors of which pain catastrophizing and SCI helplessness were most important. Psychologic intervention programs may be useful for persons suffering from chronic SCI pain to improve their quality of life.

Pain catastrophizing and neural responses to pain among persons with fibromyalgia.

Pain catastrophizing, or characterizations of pain as awful, horrible and unbearable, is increasingly being recognized as an important factor in the experience of pain. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the association between catastrophizing, as measured by the Coping Strategies Questionnaire Catastrophizing Subscale, and brain responses to blunt pressure assessed by functional MRI among 29 subjects with fibromyalgia. Since catastrophizing has been suggested to augment pain perception through enhanced attention to painful stimuli, and heightened emotional responses to pain, we hypothesized that catastrophizing would be positively associated with activation in structures believed to be involved in these aspects of pain processing. As catastrophizing is also strongly associated with depression, the influence of depressive symptomatology was statistically removed. Residual scores of catastrophizing controlling for depressive symptomatology were significantly associated with increased activity in the ipsilateral claustrum (r = 0.51, P < 0.05), cerebellum (r = 0.43, P < 0.05), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (r = 0.47, P < 0.05), and parietal cortex (r = 0.41, P < 0.05), and in the contralateral dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus (ACC; r = 0.43, P < 0.05), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (r = 0.41, P < 0.05), medial frontal cortex (r = 0.40, P < 0.05) and lentiform nuclei (r = 0.40, P < 0.05). Analysis of subjects classified as high or low catastrophizers, based on a median split of residual catastrophizing scores, showed that both groups displayed significant increases in ipsilateral secondary somatosensory cortex (SII), although the magnitude of activation was twice as large among high catastrophizers. Both groups also had significant activations in contralateral insula, SII, primary somatosensory cortex (SI), inferior parietal lobule and thalamus. High catastrophizers displayed unique activation in the contralateral anterior ACC, and the contralateral and ipsilateral lentiform. Both groups also displayed significant ipsilateral activation in SI, anterior and posterior cerebellum, posterior cingulate gyrus, and superior and inferior frontal gyrus. These findings suggest that pain catastrophizing, independent of the influence of depression, is significantly associated with increased activity in brain areas related to anticipation of pain (medial frontal cortex, cerebellum), attention to pain (dorsal ACC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), emotional aspects of pain (claustrum, closely connected to amygdala) and motor control. These results support the hypothesis that catastrophizing influences pain perception through altering attention and anticipation, and heightening emotional responses to pain. Activation associated with catastrophizing in motor areas of the brain may reflect expressive responses to pain that are associated with greater pain catastrophizing.

Communicative dimensions of pain catastrophizing: social cueing effects on pain behaviour and coping

The study was designed to assess whether the social context of a pain experience impacted on the relation between catastrophizing and duration of pain behaviour. Based on a communal coping model, the prediction was that the presence of an observer during a pain procedure would differentially influence the display of pain behaviour in high and low catastrophizers. University undergraduates taking part in a cold pressor procedure were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: (1) participant alone ( n=30), or (2) observer present ( n=34). Analysis of video records revealed that high pain catastrophizers displayed communicative pain behaviours (e.g. facial displays, vocalizations) for a longer duration when an observer was present compared to high pain catastrophizers who were alone during the pain procedure. The duration of pain management behaviours (e.g. holding, rubbing) did not vary significantly as a function of catastrophizing. When the observer was present, high catastrophizers also reported using fewer cognitive coping strategies than low catastrophizers. The pattern of findings suggests that in the presence of an observer, high pain catastrophizers show a propensity to engage in strategies that more effectively communicate their pain, and are less likely to engage in strategies that might minimize pain. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

Exposure to physical movement in low back pain patients: Restricted effects of generalization.

Whether the effects of exposure to 1 movement generalize to another dissimilar movement was investigated in 37 patients with low back pain (15 men, 22 women). Two movements were executed twice: bending forward while standing and lifting 1 leg while lying down. During each trial, baseline pain, expected pain, and experienced pain were recorded. Similar ratings for perceived harm were obtained. Analyses revealed an initial over prediction of pain, but after exposure the overprediction was readily corrected. This exposure effect did not generalize toward another dissimilar movement. These results were only characteristic for patients with catastrophic thinking about pain. Low pain catastrophizers did not overpredict pain. There were no effects of exposure on perceived harm. Exposure may profitably be conceived of as the learning of exceptions to a general rule.

Coping and Self-Medication in a Community Sample of Junior High School Students

OBJECTIVE: To examine differences between high and low catastrophizers in terms of pain, self-medication, coping, age and sex.DESIGN: Data were collected from 651 junior high students. Coping was assessed in response to pain in general. Pain (intensity and frequency) and self-medication were assessed in response to five types of pain: headache, stomach, muscle and/or joint and/or back, ear and/or throat, and menstrual pains.RESULTS: Catastrophizing groups were formed based on scores from the upper and lower thirds of a catastrophizing scale. The high catastrophizing group had higher levels of pain intensity and frequency for all five types of pain, and self-medicated more for headache, and ear and/or throat pain, compared with the low catastrophizing group. High catastrophizers reported taking over-the-counter (OTC) medication more frequently than low catastrophizers. High catastrophizers used information seeking, problem solving, social support seeking, positive self-statements and externalization more often than low catastrophizers. Low catastrophizers used behavioural and cognitive distraction more often than high catastrophizers. High catastrophizers perceived themselves to have more difficulty in dealing with pain and less control over their emotions when in pain than low catastrophizers. There were no significant differences between high and low catastrophizers in terms of controllability of pain. There was a higher percentage of catastrophizers in grade 9 than in grades 7 or 8 and a higher percentage of girls catastrophizing than boys.CONCLUSIONS: More frequent use of coping strategies while experiencing greater pain intensity and frequency may reflect catastrophizers' general inability to reduce pain. Greater use of OTC medications by catastrophizers is likely due to their experiences of more frequent and intense pain.