Low Temperature Charging Research Articles

A direct method to quantify lithium plating on graphite negative electrode of commercial Li-ion cells

The deposition of metallic lithium is a degradation mechanism, also known as lithium plating, that might occur at the negative electrode surface of Li-ion battery cell, especially during fast charging, low temperature charging and high state of charge. The loss of cyclable lithium may lead to irreversible capacity fade and might also bring significant safety hazards. In this context, the experimental quantification of plated lithium on the negative electrode surface could be used to accurately validate electrochemical and physical models that might be used to predict plated lithium without cell opening. Also, the determination of plated Li may help in the evaluation of the safety and aging of commercial cells from different manufacturers for a specific application. This work shows a fast and cost-effective method that can be used to quantify plated lithium on commercial Li-ion battery graphite electrodes.

Oriented‐Etched Graphite for Low‐Temperature Lithium‐Ion Batteries

AbstractAs an environmentally friendly energy storage media, lithium‐ion batteries have been extensively used and investigated. However, fast‐charging and low‐temperature tolerance are still huge challenges for the graphite‐based batteries. To alleviate the poor rate performance caused by long diffusion path and the risk of lithium dendrite growth at high rate or low temperature charging, graphite with penetrated macropores is fabricated here, combined with ether‐based electrolyte with low solvation energy, the smooth migration of Li+/Li at the electrolyte‐electrode interface and interior of the graphite is ensured. The product graphite exhibits excellent rate and low‐temperature performance, evidenced by 352.9 mAh g−1 capacity delivered at 2 C‐rate and −30 °C. In addition, benefited from the intact preservation of the pristine graphite structure, it exhibits ∼85 % initial charge‐discharge efficiency and long cycle life (∼94.2 % capacity retention after 500 cycles). This synergic strategy makes the product graphite very efficient in the fast charging/discharging and low temperature occasions.

A Novel Method for Heat Exchange Evaluation in EV

With the growing global energy and environmental problems, electric vehicles that are both environmentally friendly and cost effective have seen rapid growth. An electrified vehicle’s effective thermal management must include all of the vehicle’s systems. However, optimizing the thermal behavior of each component is insufficient. A lithium-ion battery’s operating temperature has a significant impact on its performance. When working at low temperatures, the internal resistance of lithium-ion batteries increases, the available energy and power of the system decreases, and lithium precipitation caused by low-temperature charging may cause safety issues; high-temperature operation and temperature inconsistency between battery cells will cause accelerated ageing of the battery, which may result in safety issues such as thermal runaway. As a result, to keep the temperature of the battery module under control, electric cars require a strong thermal management system. Thermal management must be handled at the system level to maximize the vehicle’s overall performance. The integrated thermal management system for electric vehicles has the potential to significantly increase vehicle energy efficiency. However, it’s construction is complicated due to the thermal requirements of the battery and cabin. In this research, a multi-channel liquid cooling system with a serpentine wavy structure was used to conduct an experimental thermal investigation of a lithium-ion battery pack. The suggested cooling system’s capabilities was examined under various charge/discharge scenarios using varied coolant flow rates and pumping power. The findings revealed that the suggested cooling system was successful across a variety of charging and discharging settings, with most of the tested scenarios achieving a maximum temperature difference.

Lithium Plating Detection Based on Electrochemical Impedance and Internal Resistance Analyses

Lithium plating, induced by fast charging and low-temperature charging, is one of the reasons for capacity fading and causes safety problems for lithium-ion batteries. Hence, reliable and effective non-destructive detection methods for lithium plating are needed. In this research, electrochemical impedance and internal resistance for batteries are measured during the rest period after charging. The results for lithium plating batteries and normal batteries are compared and analyzed. Lithium plating detection is realized with multiple indicators extracted from electrochemical impedance and internal resistance results. The effectiveness of the proposed detection methods is verified by the experiments conducted with commercial large-capacity batteries. The proposed methods have further potential to be used in battery management systems to realize online detection of lithium plating and improve the safety of battery systems.

Effect of Disorder and Doping on Electronic Structure and Diffusion Properties of Li3V2O5

V2O5 in its ω phase (Li3V2O5) with excess lithium is a potential alternative to the graphite anode for lithium-ion batteries at low temperature and fast charging conditions owing to its safer voltage (0.6 V vs Li+/Li(s)) and high lithium transport rate. In-operando cationic disorder, as observed in most ordered materials, can produce significant changes in charge compensation mechanisms, anionic activity, lithium diffusion, and operational voltages. In this work, we report the variation in structural distortion, electronic structure, and migration barrier accompanied by disorder using first-principles calculations. Owing to the segregation of lithium atoms in the disordered state, we observe greater distortion, emergence of metallic behavior, and potential anionic activity from nonbonding oxygen states near the Fermi level. Redox capacity can be tuned by doping with 3d metals, which can adjust the participating cationic states, and by fluorine substitution, which can stabilize or suppress anionic states. Moreover, the suppression of anionic activity is found to decrease structural distortion, which is crucial for mitigating voltage fade and hysteresis. Diffusion barrier calculations in the presence of disorder indicate the activation of the remaining 3D paths for lithium hopping which are unavailable in the ordered configuration, explaining its fast-charging ability observed in experiments.

Analysis of the duration of the low-temperature circulation charging of an adsorption methane storage system using the ANSYS Fluent software package

Adsorbed natural gas (ANG) systems are a promising alternative to the high-pressure compressed natural gas and low-temperature liquefied natural gas. ANG systems accumulate methane with lower energy consumption and an increased fire and explosion safety due to the gas-bound state in the pores. However, the charging process is complicated due to the thermal effects of adsorption, which reduce the methods energy efficiency, thus needing an additional thermal control. A study of the duration of low-temperature circulation charging of an elementary adsorption cell of various geometries was conducted under different temperature and pressure modes. The charging completion criterion was achieving 95% limit value of the amount of accumulated methane, which was constant for all considered cases. As a result of modeling, a reduction in the duration of gas accumulation was observed with an increase in the operating pressure. It has been established that the charging time is significantly affected by the gas channel opening diameter, required to reduce the hydraulic resistance of the adsorbent layer as when the channel diameter increased from 4 to 6 mm, the charging time decreased by 138 s or 25% on an average. A twofold smaller effect of ~13% was registered with an increase in the diameter from 2 to 4 mm due to the changing cooling nature.

Modeling the inhomogeneous lithium plating in lithium-ion batteries induced by non-uniform temperature distribution

Under fast-charging or low-temperature charging conditions, large-format lithium-ion batteries are prone to inhomogeneous lithium plating, resulting in localized degradation and even internal short circuit, thus requiring a thorough investigation. This study establishes a three-dimensional electrochemical model to analyze the inhomogeneous lithium plating behavior in lithium-ion batteries. The model is validated with the voltage profiles and temperature distributions of a 24Ah pouch lithium-ion battery during low-temperature charging. The inhomogeneous lithium plating induced by non-uniform temperature distribution and the underlying mechanism are investigated using the model. The local current density and overpotential turn out to be the key factors affecting the spatial distribution of plated lithium. Moreover, the effects of temperature gradients on the lithium plating and stripping behaviors are explored. In-plane temperature gradient shows little effect on the total amount of plated lithium, but leads to apparent inhomogeneity in the distribution of plated lithium, with the differences between the concentrations of plated lithium in the upper and lower half of battery reach 57.61%, 103.06% and 159.68% of the average concentration in the whole battery during 1C charging at -5, 5 and 10°C, respectively. The temperature gradient also significantly influences the battery voltage relaxation profile related to the lithium stripping process. The characteristic plateau in the battery voltage relaxation profile disappears when the temperature gradient increases to larger than 6°C, leading to difficulty in detecting inhomogeneous lithium plating in large-format lithium batteries. The results presented in this study can provide helpful guidance for the design and management of large-format lithium-ion batteries.

(Digital Presentation) Protective Effects of Lithium Plating on High Temperature Degradation of Lithium-Ion Cells

Lithium plating and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth are two main degradation mechanisms of lithium-ion cells. While lithium plating can occur during low temperature charging and/or fast charging, SEI growth is accelerated during high temperature operation. Here we report an interesting observation that lithium plating shows protective effects on high temperature degradation of lithium-ion cells. As shown in Figure 1, two baseline commercially available lithium-ion cells were cycled only at 60 °C. They rapidly degraded which can be attributed to SEI growth. In comparison, the other two cells were pre-cycled at 5 °C and experienced rapid degradation due to lithium plating. But when these two cells with lithium plating were further cycled at 60 °C, they showed slower degradation than the baseline cells. Similar results were also observed for cells cycled at 45 °C as shown in Figure 2. These preliminary results suggest that lithium plating has protective effects for high temperature cycling of lithium-ion cells. Such effects were further observed in lab-made lithium-ion cells with low negative/positive (N/P) ratio. As shown in Figure 3, baseline cells (N/P ratio=1.25) degraded quickly during 60 °C cycling (21 mA constant current charging to 4.2 V and 21 mA constant current discharging to 2.8 V). In comparison, low N/P ratio cells (N/P ratio=0.8) that had lithium plating induced during formation showed very stable discharge capacity for more than 600 cycles before abrupt degradation. Further analysis of these results will be reported. Figure 1

Investigating Li Plating Distribution Caused By a Thermal Gradient through Modelling, Differential Voltage, and Post-Mortem Analysis

Relatively slow charging speeds are often quoted as a key barrier to customer acceptance of EVs. Currently, the charging rates are limited primarily by the risk of lithium plating. While traditionally lithium plating has been associated with low temperature charging, recent reports point to the fact that thermal heterogeneity can significantly affect the plating behaviour, sometimes making it more likely or accelerated in the warmer regions in a cell [1][2]. In EVs, through-plane thermal gradients often develop across individual pouch cells due to the widespread use of surface cooling, particularly during fast charging, when the heat generation rates are also increased. This work investigates the effects of such through-plane thermal gradients on the lithium plating behaviour using a multilayer 2D electrochemical-thermal model and high-rate cycling experiments. The results show that the thermal gradient can result in preferential plating in either the colder or warmer cell regions, depending on the average cell temperature and the activation energies of solid diffusion and lithium plating. While the diffusion rates are slower in the colder cell layers, warmer ones attract higher currents and either of these effects may dominate the plating behaviour. The experimental validation consists of differential voltage analysis, post-mortem visual examination and measurement of remaining capacity in coin cells harvested from Li-ion cells fast charged under uniform temperatures and under thermal gradients. The limitations of DVA as a technique to quantify lithium plating are highlighted. These stem from the fact that the quantification technique requires assuming that only lithium stripping and no de-intercalation takes place up to the differential voltage minimum. In reality, the current is divided between both reactions, and both the temperature and concentration of the metallic lithium may affect the rate of stripping, shifting the location of the minimum independently of the amount of lithium plated. The results shed light on the effects of thermal gradients on lithium plating behaviour in pouch cells and the challenges associated with quantifying plating with DVA.

Investigation the Degradation Mechanisms of Lithium-Ion Batteries under Low-Temperature High-Rate Cycling

Low-temperature high-rate cycling leads to accelerated performance degradation of lithium-ion batteries, which seriously hampers the large-scale popularization of electric vehicles. To clarify the battery degradation characteristics and mechanisms, this work conducts an in-depth investigation on the commercial lithium-ion batteries with 37 A h during the long-term cycling under low-temperature high-rate charging. The battery capacity displays the decelerating degradation trend during the long-term cycling, and the battery capacity recovery rate is as high as 80–90%. Furthermore, it is interesting that the constant current discharge capacity exhibits jumping behavior at around 120th cycle during the discharge process. By postmortem characterization analysis, it is found that lithium plating is the primary degradation mechanism. Lithium plating exhibits nonuniformity and displays a decelerating trend in the later stage. In view of the lower temperature, the plated lithium can better retain the reaction activity, which results in a higher capacity recovery rate. Besides, lithium plating increases the internal polarization, which makes the constant current discharge capacity jump when lithium plating reaches a certain level. The findings can provide certain references for battery optimization.

An optimal thermal management system heating control strategy for electric vehicles under low-temperature fast charging conditions

• An improving fast charging protocol is proposed to avoid lithium plating. • A multi-stage heating control strategy based on the battery temperature is developed. • Dual crucial objectives, heating energy consumption and charging time are balanced. • An optimal heating control strategy for low-temperature fast charging is proposed. • The optimal control strategy can reduce heating energy consumption by 11.61%. Electric vehicle thermal management system (EVTMS) and its corresponding control strategy are essential to ensure the battery performance at low temperatures. Due to the complexity of the low-temperature fast charging process, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the battery heating and charging performance when developing the heating strategy. However, most studies only focus on the charging time. In this context, an EVTMS is investigated in this paper, and the simulation models are established. In addition, the battery heating and charging performance under low-temperature fast charging conditions are analyzed by experiment and simulation. An improved fast charging protocol for reducing the battery-lifetime degradation is proposed. Moreover, an EVTMS multi-stage heating control strategy is developed to realize the cooperative control with the improved charging strategy. Taking dual crucial yet conflicting factors, heating energy consumption and charging time, as the optimization objectives, the proposed EVTMS control strategy is optimized using genetic algorithm. And an optimal heating control strategy is obtained. The results show that compared with the strategy only considering the charging time, the optimal strategy can reduce the heating energy consumption by 11.61% and increase the charging efficiency by 1.2%, only with the increase of the charging time by 2.98 min.

A coupled finite element approach to spatially resolved lithium plating and stripping in three-dimensional anode microstructures of lithium-ion cells

In this article, we present a coupled finite element approach to spatially resolved lithium plating and stripping in three-dimensional anode microstructures of lithium-ion cells. The local film thickness of plated lithium at the anode-electrolyte interface is treated as a primary variable in addition to the lithium concentration and the electric potential inside both electrodes as well as the lithium concentration and the electrochemical potential inside the electrolyte. We take the electric resistance of plated lithium into account when evaluating the Butler–Volmer charge transfer kinetics at the anode-electrolyte interface. The overall system of nonlinear equations resulting from discretization in time and space is solved in a monolithic, implicit fashion by the iterative Newton–Raphson method. To ensure stable and fast convergence especially during the final stages of lithium stripping, we introduce a novel regularization technique characterized by a trigonometrical regularization function for the purpose of discontinuity removal, and we show that our regularization is indeed necessary and effective while being superior to an existing one from the literature in several respects. The linear solver is derived from an advanced, physics-oriented preconditioning and solution technique established in one of our previous publications. In a large number of numerical examples, we thoroughly study two different lithium-ion cells involving up to approximately 2.3 million degrees of freedom. We thereby prove that our modeling and simulation approach is straightforwardly applicable to large and complex problem setups, and that it is capable of capturing lithium plating and stripping during continuous cell cycling without any interruptions in the corresponding simulations. Besides validating our implementation and examining various electrochemical properties of lithium plating and stripping, we also demonstrate that our approach is physically plausible and sensitive to overcharging, fast charging, and low-temperature charging as the three major causes of lithium plating. Unlike existing and widely used approaches based on geometric homogenization via morphological model parameters such as the porosity and the tortuosity, our approach offers the opportunity to detect spatial inhomogeneities in the propagation and distribution of plated lithium within anode microstructures. Accurate and in-depth numerical investigations of lithium plating and stripping are thus enabled as a potent alternative to elaborate and often costly experimental studies.

Revisiting the Roles of Natural Graphite in Ongoing Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Graphite, commonly including artificial graphite and natural graphite (NG), possesses a relatively high theoretical capacity of 372mAhg-1 and appropriate lithiation/de-lithiation potential, and has been extensively used as the anode of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). With the requirements of reducing CO2 emission to achieve carbon neutral, the market share of NG anode will continue to grow due to its excellent processability and low production energy consumption. NG, which is abundant in China, can be divided into flake graphite (FG) and microcrystalline graphite (MG). In the past 30 years, many researchers have focused on developing modified NG and its derivatives with superior electrochemical performance, promoting their wide applications in LIBs. Here, a comprehensive overview of the origin, roles, and research progress of NG-based materials in ongoing LIBs is provided, including their structure, properties, electrochemical performance, modification methods, derivatives, composites, and applications, especially the strategies to improve their high-rate and low-temperature charging performance. Prospects regarding the development orientation as well as future applications of NG-based materials are also considered, which will provide significant guidance for the current and future research of high-energy-density LIBs.

Heat and Mass Transfer in an Adsorbed Natural Gas Storage System Filled with Monolithic Carbon Adsorbent during Circulating Gas Charging.

Adsorbed natural gas (ANG) technology is a promising alternative to traditional compressed (CNG) and liquefied (LNG) natural gas systems. Nevertheless, the energy efficiency and storage capacity of an ANG system strongly depends on the thermal management of its inner volume because of significant heat effects occurring during adsorption/desorption processes. In the present work, a prototype of a circulating charging system for an ANG storage tank filled with a monolithic nanoporous carbon adsorbent was studied experimentally under isobaric conditions (0.5–3.5 MPa) at a constant volumetric flow rate (8–18 m3/h) or flow mode (Reynolds number at the adsorber inlet from 100,000 to 220,000). The study of the thermal state of the monolithic adsorbent layer and internal heat exchange processes during the circulating charging of an adsorbed natural gas storage system was carried out. The correlation between the gas flow mode, the dynamic gas flow temperature, and the heat transfer coefficient between the gas and adsorbent was determined. A one-dimensional mathematical model of the circulating low-temperature charging process was developed, the results of which correspond to the experimental measurements.

Charging Strategy Optimization at Low Temperatures for Li-Ion Batteries Based on Multi-Factor Coupling Aging Model

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) charging at low temperatures will easily accelerate the aging of LIBs and reduce the useful life. This paper applies advanced multi-factors coupling aging model and bi-objective particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to derive suitable charging patterns for LIBs at low temperatures. Based on the results of orthogonal experiments, which consider the effects of charging rate, charging temperature and charging cut-off voltage on battery aging, the low-temperature capacity degradation model was established. Furthermore, two important yet competing charging objectives, including battery health and charging time, are taken into account simultaneously. These two conflicting charging objectives are traded off by solving a bi-objective optimization problem based on battery electrothermal and aging behavior. Combined with PSO algorithm, the optimal low-temperature charging strategy is obtained. As a result, the three-stage constant current and constant voltage (CC-CV) charging strategy is optimized to balance various combinations of charging objectives. Different tradeoffs are compared and analyzed based on the Pareto frontiers. The verification results show that the optimized three-stage CC-CV charging strategy can effectively offer feasible health-conscious charging with desirable tradeoffs among charging speed and battery health under low-temperature charging conditions.

Experimental study of the thermal management process at low-temperature circulating charging of an adsorbed natural gas storage system

Adsorbed natural gas (ANG) technology is a promising alternative to traditional compressed (CNG) and liquefied (LNG) natural gas systems. Nevertheless, energy efficiency and storage capacity of ANG system strongly depends on thermal management of its inner volume because of significant heat effects occurring during adsorption/desorption processes. At the same time low-temperature charging of ANG system provides its higher storage capacity as well as increased fire and explosion safety due to lower operating pressure and “bound-state” of gas molecules with the surface of adsorbent. In present work, a prototype of low-temperature circulating charging system for ANG storage tank filled with shaped microporous carbon adsorbent was studied experimentally in wide ranges of pressures (0.5-3.5 MPa) and gas flow rates (8-18 m3/h).

Comparative Analytical Modeling and Performance Investigation of Graphene-Based Super Capacitor with Four Traditional Batteries

Graphene, a magical development of 2004, has revolutionized today's energy storage technologies. It is nothing but a graphite two-dimensional (2D) allotropic pure carbon layer which is derived from a three-dimensional (3D) shape. Since batteries have been the most common storage device from the invention of the first electrical battery by an Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1799 A.D but batteries offer many drawbacks, such as length, weight, poor transient response, low power density, and high internal resistance. In this contrast, the impressive and unique properties of graphene supercapacitor such as high peak current, high surface area, high electrical conductivity, low internal resistance, high load current, long life cycle, high power density, low-temperature charging, and discharging make graphene supercapacitor a replacement of traditional energy storage devices and sets trend for the future. This analytical comparative analysis presents an overview between four traditional batteries and graphene-based supercapacitor. For this regard, dynamic models, modeling equations, and an integrated simulation model for batteries and graphene-supercapacitors under MATLAB/Simulink® 2020a environment is developed. In addition, the effect of temperature on battery output and graphene-supercapacitor is also addressed.

Towards Rechargeable Aluminum-Ionic Liquid Batteries for Low-Temperature Space Applications

Batteries operating reliably at low temperatures are required to power robotic spacecraft, particularly those that embark on planetary science missions1. For example, Mars surface missions have typical temperature targets of -40 to -60 °C, while surface mission concepts to the outer planets or Ocean Worlds, such as Europa, have targets down to -180 °C. At low temperatures, state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries suffer from lithium plating and dendritic growth on the graphite anodes, severe capacity loss associated with sluggish ion diffusion in crystalline transition metal cathodes, and kinetic limitations2. While organic electrolyte mixtures have been developed that enable moderate low-temperature performance, new battery concepts, including those using ionic liquid electrolytes, are needed to enable new paradigms in low or ultra-low temperature space missions. Recently, rechargeable aluminum batteries have been developed that use chloroaluminate-containing ionic liquid electrolytes, which may be suitable alternatives to lithium-based batteries when used under extreme temperatures. Aluminum metal is also distinguished by its high energy density, safety, low cost, and sustainability, which are also key properties for space applications.Herein we present, for the first time, results towards rechargeable Al-batteries designed specifically for low-temperature space missions that demonstrate high capacity retention, long-term cyclability, and favorable electrochemical kinetics at low temperatures down to -40 °C. We focus on the development of ionic liquid electrolytes with mixed anion-cation compositions to impart disorder and disrupt crystallization, while pairing them with functionalized graphite and conducting polymer cathodes.3 , 4 The resulting aluminum batteries were characterized by variable-temperature and rate cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic cycling, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to understand their reaction mechanisms and factors limiting their rate performance. The ionic liquid electrolyte mixtures were also characterized by a combination of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and electrochemical methods to understand their freezing points and electrochemical stability. The results provide fundamental insights into the design of positive electrode materials and ionic liquid electrolyte mixtures in novel batteries for low-temperature space applications.References Bugga, R. V.; Brandon, E. J., Energy Storage for the Next Generation of Robotic Space Exploration. Electrochemical Society Interface 2020, 29 (1), 59-63.Jones, J.-P.; Smart, M. C.; Krause, F. C.; Bugga, R. V., The Effect of Electrolyte Additives upon Lithium Plating during Low Temperature Charging of Graphite-LiNiCoAlO2 Lithium-Ion Three Electrode Cells. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 2020, 167 (2), 020536.Schoetz, T.; Kurniawan, M.; Stich, M.; Peipmann, R.; Efimov, I.; Ispas, A.; Bund, A.; Ponce de Leon, C.; Ueda, M., Understanding the charge storage mechanism of conductive polymers as hybrid battery-capacitor materials in ionic liquids by in situ atomic force microscopy and electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance studies. Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2018, 6 (36), 17787-17799.Xu, J. H.; Turney, D. E.; Jadhav, A. L.; Messinger, R. J., Effects of Graphite Structure and Ion Transport on the Electrochemical Properties of Rechargeable Aluminum–Graphite Batteries. ACS Applied Energy Materials 2019, 2 (11), 7799-7810.

Identification of Degradation Mechanisms by Post-Mortem Analysis for High Power and High Energy Commercial Li-Ion Cells after Electric Vehicle Aging

Driven by the rise of the electric automotive industry, the Li-ion battery market is in strong expansion. This technology does not only fulfill the requirements of electric mobility, but is also found in most portable electric devices. Even though Li-ion batteries are known for their numerous advantages, they undergo serious performance degradation during their aging, and more particularly when used in specific conditions such as at low temperature or high charging current rates. Depending on the operational conditions, different aging mechanisms are favored and can induce physical and chemical modifications of the internal components, leading to performance decay. In this article, the identification of the degradation mechanisms was carried out thanks to an in-depth ante- and post mortem study on three high power and high energy commercial 18,650 cells. Li-ion cells were aged using a battery electric vehicle (BEV) aging profile at −20 °C, 0 °C, 25 °C, and 45 °C in accordance with the international standard IEC 62-660, and in calendar aging mode at 45 °C and SOC 100%. Internal components recovered from fresh and aged cells were investigated through different electrochemical (half-coin cell), chemical (EDX, GD-OES, NMR), and topological (SEM) characterization techniques. The influence of power and energy cells’ internal design and Si content in the negative electrode on cell aging has been highlighted vis-à-vis the capacity and power fade.

Detecting undesired lithium plating on anodes for lithium-ion batteries – A review on the in-situ methods

Lithium plating on anodes, which can happen during fast charging and low-temperature charging, and/or after long-term cycling, plays a crucial role in the aging of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and leads to irreversible capacity fade and severe safety hazards. This study systematically reviews the recent progress in developing methods for in-situ detecting lithium plating in order to provide guidelines regarding selecting proper methods for on-board applications. In general, lithium plating can be divided into three stages according to the damage level. There are two categories of methods, electrochemical methods and physical methods, which can be used to detect lithium plating. Their principles, features, and limitations have been thoroughly analyzed. Trends for the prospective development of novel technologies are also discussed.