Low-load Task Research Articles

Kinesiophobia is unrelated to limb symmetry during high- and low-load tasks in young adults with ongoing symptoms following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Kinesiophobia is unrelated to limb symmetry during high- and low-load tasks in young adults with ongoing symptoms following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

CrossKeys: Text Entry for Virtual Reality Using a Single Controller via Wrist Rotation

Text entry has long been an indispensable part of people’s lives; notwithstanding, in virtual reality (VR), an efficient and handy text entry method for such an environment is still wanted. There are two negative factors in the very majority of existing text entry methods: 1) constrained by two-dimensional mapping; 2) must manipulate with both hands to ensure efficiency. Few are employing the three-dimensional space a virtual environment provides, with which text entry could perform much better; also, even with several methods enabling one-hand manipulation, the trade-off is off-balance when sacrificing performance. Therefore, we propose an innovative text entry method to achieve a faster speed, higher accuracy, and better user experience. We design a cross-like layout to reduce the average distance of spatial displacement when selecting characters. In selecting and entering characters, a user simply rotates the wrist and points the embodied controller to one of the seven character blocks in the virtual environment; afterward, within the selected block, the user enters the target character or auto-completion candidate word via two basic trackpad interactions, touching and clicking. We evaluate our CrossKeys mainly based on two criteria: efficiency, task load, and three tasks: learnability and performance test, fatigue test, and evaluation of in-motion performance. To evaluate efficiency, we analyze words per minute (WPM) and error rate (NCER, TER); to evaluate task load, we analyze NASA-TLX and Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) results. According to the data from our participants after only 2 hours of first-time training, our CrossKeys performs well with an average WPM of 17.73, a peak WPM of 24.73, and an error rate (NCER) of 0.30% along with a low task load.

Inhibitory Control Training for Anxiety and Math Achievement in Primary School Children: Protocol for a Proof-of-Concept Study.

Cognitive control training (CCT) has shown potential to reduce emotional vulnerability in adults and adolescents. However, there is scant literature testing the efficacy of CCT for the reduction of anxiety and transferring the effects to educational outcomes in children. Building on the evidence that a greater ability to suppress a prepotent response (inhibitory control) is associated with higher math achievement in children, it is plausible that training inhibitory processes using a CCT paradigm may be beneficial for reducing anxiety, improving inhibitory control, and in turn increasing math achievement. This proof-of-concept study aims to investigate the efficacy of 15 sessions of inhibitory control training for reduction in anxiety and improvement in math achievement in primary school children. We will use a 2 (group: CCT, adaptive Go/No-Go vs active control, low-load task) multiplied by 4 (time: pre- vs posttraining vs 1-month vs 3-month follow-up) randomized design in a nonselected sample of 100 children aged 8-10 years. Both groups will complete 10 minutes of daily training for 3 weeks at school. The dependent variables will be anxiety and correlates (Spence Children's Anxiety Scale, Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children, Revised Children's Anxiety and Depression Scale, Child Response Style Questionnaire, and Modified Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale), inhibitory control (Go/No-Go task), shifting (color-shape shifting task), updating (n-back task), and math achievement (Applied Problems, Calculation, and Math Facts Fluency subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement). We opened enrollment in September 2023. The initial results are expected to be published in late 2024. We predict that children in the CCT group will show a reduction in emotional symptoms; improvements in inhibition, shifting, and updating performance; and advances in math achievement from pre- to posttraining, and that these effects will be maintained at 1- and 3-month follow-ups, compared to children in the active control group. The CCT paradigm used in our study will provide a greater understanding of the emotional and cognitive transfer effects on children and inform future work. Specifically, the findings will advance the knowledge of deploying inhibitory control training with children and provide valuable insights into its use for reducing anxiety and advancing math achievement. Open Science Framework ofs.io/de2qa; https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/DE2QA. PRR1-10.2196/52929.

The effect of reward expectation on working memory of emotional faces under different levels of cognitive load: an ERP study.

Using event-related potentials (ERPs), this study examined the impact of reward expectations on working memory of emotional faces under different levels of cognitive load in a task combining the N-back paradigm and the reward expectation paradigm. The experiment involved presenting high- or low-reward cues followed by an N-back task for emotional faces with different loads. The accuracy results showed that under a high task load, both reward and emotion effects were significantly observed. However, these effects disappeared under a low task load. Analysis of the ERP data revealed that the early P2 and VPP components exhibited greater responses to fearful faces than to neutral faces. In the later stages, the P3 and LPP components showed greater reactions to high rewards than to low rewards. Additionally, the P2 component was found to be modulated by task load in relation to rewards, the EPN component demonstrated task load modulation with respect to emotions, and the N170 component showed an interaction effect between rewards and emotions. These findings imply that load regulates the reward effect and the emotional superiority effect in the process of working memory for emotional faces. In the cognitive processing of working memory, motivation and emotion jointly influence processing. Emotional factors have a greater impact in the early stage of processing, while motivation factors have a greater impact in the late stage of processing.

Validation of a mobile fNIRS device for measuring working memory load in the prefrontal cortex

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that measures cortical blood flow to infer neural activation. Traditionally limited to laboratory settings due to high costs and complex operation, recent advancements have introduced mobile fNIRS devices, significantly broadening the scope of potential research participants. This study validates the use of the Mendi, a two-channel mobile fNIRS system, for measuring prefrontal oxyhemoglobin concentration changes during an n-back task. We manipulated task difficulty through different n-back levels (one-back versus three-back), revealing increased oxyhemoglobin concentrations in the prefrontal cortex during the more demanding three-back task compared to the one-back task. This finding demonstrates the Mendi's ability to distinguish between low and high cognitive task loads. Behavioural data, showing a decrease in accuracy under high load conditions, further corroborates these neuroimaging findings. Our study validates the Mendi mobile fNIRS system as an effective tool for assessing working memory load and underscores its potential in enhancing neuroscientific research accessibility. The user-friendly and cost-effective nature of mobile fNIRS systems like the Mendi opens up neuroscientific research to a diverse set of participants, enabling the investigation of neural processes in real-world environments across a variety of demographic groups.

The effect of emotional motivation on strategy flexibility: the moderating role of task load

IntroductionResearch has demonstrated that cognitive flexibility is associated with academic achievement, with poorer cognitive flexibility being linked to poorer academic performance. Strategy conversion is an example of cognitive flexibility, which requires individuals to quickly and flexibly switch between strategies depending on the task at hand. Studies have investigated the impact of emotional motivation on cognitive flexibility, with varying results. Furthermore, research has indicated that a high task load increases psychological burden and reduces cognitive flexibility, but few studies have analyzed the impact of task load on the relationship between emotional motivation and cognitive flexibility. This study sought to investigate the effect of emotional motivation on cognitive flexibility based on strategy switching, and the moderating effect of task load.MethodsThree experiments were conducted. Experiment 1 used forced conversion paradigm with a moderate task load that required participants to estimate tasks using a given strategy. Experiment 2 employed matched conversion paradigm with a high task load, informing participants of the strategies to be used but without any clues, necessitating the selection and execution of appropriate strategies based on the question features. Experiment 3 adopted free conversion paradigm with a relatively low task load, allowing participants to freely choose and execute strategies without any correctness or error criteria.ResultsThe intensity and direction of emotional motivation have a complicated and fluctuating impact on the flexibility to utilize strategies. When the task workload is high, the intensity of emotional motivation has a significant impact on strategy utilization flexibility, with low approach motivation being more conducive to flexibility. Conversely, when the task workload is low, the direction of emotional motivation has a greater effect, with high avoidance motivation being more advantageous.DiscussionThis study demonstrated that high workload could bring about a low intensity advantage, while low workload could induce an avoidance direction advantage, suggesting that task load could moderate the impact of emotional motivation on arithmetic strategy utilization flexibility, and avoidance motivation is not always detrimental to cognitive flexibility.

Working memory capacity predicts focus back effort under different task demands

According to the cognitive flexibility view, individuals with higher cognitive control ability are more flexible in experiencing on task or mind wandering during tasks with different loads. On the other hand, the resource-control theory posits that executive control is essential for allocating attentional resources between mind wandering and tasks. Focus back effort may reflect the adjustment of executive control in the resource-control theory. Here, 121 participants completed two span tasks, as well as high- and low-load tasks, while mind wandering and focus back effort were measured. Our findings indicated that mind wandering was influenced by working memory capacity (WMC) and focus back effort. Additionally, participants demonstrated a higher focus back effort during the higher load task. This effect was particularly pronounced in individuals with lower WMC, which was treated as a continuous variable. These findings integrate the cognitive flexibility view and resource-control theory to describe how individuals modulate mind wandering.

How attentional resources of the same or across sensory modalities and task load affect cognitive performance? A multi-sensory integration study

ABSTRACT This study examined how attentional resources of the same or across sensory modalities with varying levels of task load affect cognitive performance. A total of 120 young adults completed an experiment that simultaneously processed either visual–visual (V–V) or visual–auditory (V–A) stimuli. A mixed ANOVA revealed that performance in the V–V experiment was superior to the V–A experiment. Furthermore, performance was significantly better for single tasks relative to dual tasks. The interaction effect showed that increased task load significantly impacted the performance in the V–V experiment but not in the V–A experiment. The findings implied that multi-sensory integration is only more manageable when information processing involves the same type of (visual) sensory modality and with low task load, but less effective for high-level attentional tasks even with the same sensory modality. The effectiveness of cross-modal multi-sensory integration can be compromised potentially due to the inhibitory effect of audio over visual information.

Tracking drivers’ minds: Continuous evaluation of mental load and cognitive processing in a realistic driving simulator scenario by means of the EEG

Driving safety strongly depends on the driver's mental states and attention to the driving situation. Previous studies demonstrate a clear relationship between EEG measures and mental states, such as alertness and drowsiness, but often only map their mental state for a longer period of time. In this driving simulation study, we exploit the high temporal resolution of the EEG to capture fine-grained modulations in cognitive processes occurring before and after eye activity in the form of saccades, fixations, and eye blinks. A total of 15 subjects drove through an approximately 50-km course consisting of highway, country road, and urban passages. Based on the ratio of brain oscillatory alpha and theta activity, the total distance was classified into 10-m-long sections with low, medium, and high task loads. Blink-evoked and fixation-evoked event-related potentials, spectral perturbations, and lateralizations were analyzed as neuro-cognitive correlates of cognition and attention. Depending on EEG-based estimation of task load, these measures showed distinct patterns associated with driving behavior parameters such as speed and steering acceleration and represent a temporally highly resolved image of specific cognitive processes during driving. In future applications, combinations of these EEG measures could form the basis for driver warning systems which increase overall driving safety by considering rapid fluctuations in driver's attention and mental states.

Time on task and task load in visual inspection: A four-month field study with X-ray baggage screeners

Previous studies suggest that performance in visual inspection and typical vigilance tasks depend on time on task and task load. European regulation mandates that security officers (screeners) take a break or change tasks after 20 min of X-ray baggage screening. However, longer screening durations could reduce staffing challenges. We investigated the effects of time on task and task load on visual inspection performance in a four-month field study with screeners. At an international airport, 22 screeners inspected X-ray images of cabin baggage for up to 60 min, while a control group (N = 19) screened for 20 min. Hit rate remained stable for low and average task loads. However, when the task load was high, the screeners compensated by speeding up X-ray image inspection at the expense of the hit rate over time on task. Our results support the dynamic-allocation resource theory. Moreover, extending the permitted screening duration to 30 or 40 min should be considered.

Trigger motion and interface optimization of an eye-controlled human-computer interaction system based on voluntary eye blinks

ABSTRACT Eye-controlled human-computer interaction (ECHCI) attracts attention for its human-centered, natural and direct operation characteristics. The most common ECHCI trigger motion is “gazing,” which causes Midas Touch problems, lowering usability and operation experience. This paper innovatively proposed using motion combinations based on blinking as the trigger of interactive objects (IOs). Trigger motions and IO design parameters were explored on the platform consisting of Tobii eye-tracker and computer vision kits. In the motion experiment, it was concluded 2-blinks could bring a low task load and high success rate of 95%. In the IO size experiment, the larger the IO diameter, the shorter the users’ response time and the higher users’ interaction success rate, and 55.5 mm was the optimal setting. Based on this, it was found a larger spacing could bring higher operation efficiency, and 33.3 mm was taken as the recommended value. Based on the conclusion above, an eye-controlled multimedia player prototype was built for usability evaluation, which showed an equally high efficiency compared to mouse-controlled HCI. The findings in this paper overcame Midas Touch issues and avoided the interference of unavoidable involuntary blinking, which brought a significant increase in system robustness and has a wide range of potential applications.

Usability and Vibration Analysis of a Low-Profile Automatic Powered Wheelchair to Motor Vehicle Docking System.

The QLX is a low-profile automatic powered wheelchair docking system (WDS) prototype developed to improve the securement and discomfort of wheelchair users when riding in vehicles. The study evaluates the whole-body vibration effects between the proposed QLX and another WDS (4-point tiedown system) following ISO 2631-1 standards and a systematic usability evaluation. Whole-body vibration analysis was evaluated in wheelchairs using both WDS to dock in a vehicle while riding on real-world surfaces. Also, participants rated the usability of each WDS while driving a wheelchair and while riding in a vehicle in driving tasks. Both WDSs showed similar vibration results within the vibration health-risk margins; but shock values below health-risk margins. Fifteen powered wheelchair users reported low task load demand to operate both WDS; but better performance to dock in vehicles with the QLX (p = 0.03). Also, the QLX showed better usability (p < 0.01), less discomfort (p's < 0.05), and greater security compared to the 4-point tiedown while riding in a vehicle (p's < 0.05). Study findings indicate that both WDS maintain low shock exposure for wheelchair users while riding vehicles, but a better performance overall to operate the QLX compared to the 4-point tiedown system; hence enhancing user's autonomy to dock in vehicles independently.

Mechanisms underlying corruption of working memory in Parkinson's disease.

Working memory (WM) impairments are reported to occur in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the mechanisms are unclear. Here, we investigate several putative factors that might drive poor performance, by examining the precision of recall, the order in which items are recalled and whether memories are corrupted by random guessing (attentional lapses). We used two separate tasks that examined the quality of WM recall under different loads and retention periods, as well as a traditional digit span test. Firstly, on a simple measure of WM recall, where patients were asked to reproduce the orientation of a centrally presented arrow, overall recall was not significantly impaired. However, there was some evidence for increased guessing (attentional lapses). On a new analogue version of the Corsi-span task, where participants had to reproduce on a touchscreen the exact spatial pattern of presented stimuli in the order and locations in which they appeared, there was a reduction in the precision of spatial WM at higher loads. This deficit was due to misremembering item order. At the highest load, there was reduced recall precision, whereas increased guessing was only observed at intermediate set sizes. Finally, PD patients had impaired backward, but not forward, digit spans. Overall, these results reveal the task- and load-dependent nature of WM deficits in PD. On simple low-load tasks, attentional lapses predominate, whereas at higher loads, in the spatial domain, the corruption of mnemonic information-both order item and precision-emerge as the main driver of impairment.

A mobile-based airway clearance care system using deep learning-based vision technology to support personalized home-based pulmonary rehabilitation for COAD patients: Development and usability testing.

Excessive mucus secretion is a serious issue for patients with chronic obstructive airway disease (COAD), which can be effectively managed through postural drainage and percussion (PD + P) during pulmonary rehabilitation (PR). Home-based (H)-PR can be as effective as center-based PR but lacks professional supervision and timely feedback, leading to low motivation and adherence. Telehealth home-based pulmonary (TH-PR) has emerged to assist H-PR, but video conferencing and telephone calls remain the main approaches for COAD patients. Therefore, research on effectively assisting patients in performing PD + P during TH-PR is limited. This study developed a mobile-based airway clearance care for chronic obstructive airway disease (COAD-MoAcCare) system to support personalized TH-PR for COAD patients and evaluated its usability through expert validation. The COAD-MoAcCare system uses a mobile device through deep learning-based vision technology to monitor, guide, and evaluate COAD patients' PD + P operations in real time during TH-PR programs. Medical personnel can manage and monitor their personalized PD + P and operational statuses through the system to improve TH-PR performance. Respiratory therapists from different hospitals evaluated the system usability using system questionnaires based on the technology acceptance model, system usability scale (SUS), and task load index (NASA-TLX). Eleven participant therapists were highly satisfied with the COAD-MoAcCare system, rating it between 4.1 and 4.6 out of 5.0 on all scales. The system demonstrated good usability (SUS score of 74.1 out of 100) and a lower task load (NASA-TLX score of 30.0 out of 100). The overall accuracy of PD + P operations reached a high level of 97.5% by comparing evaluation results of the system by experts. The COAD-MoAcCare system is the first mobile-based method to assist COAD patients in conducting PD + P in TH-PR. It was proven to be usable by respiratory therapists, so it is expected to benefit medical personnel and COAD patients. It will be further evaluated through clinical trials.

Development and evaluation of a human machine interface to support mode awareness in different automated driving modes

With increasing implementation of automated driving technology it is expected that different automation modes will be present within the same vehicle and within a single trip. At all times during automated driving the driver needs to have ‘mode awareness’, which is an understanding of the automation mode and the corresponding responsibilities. Yet, research on HMI design to support mode awareness for multiple automation modes within a single vehicle and within a single trip is currently limited. The current work describes the development and evaluation of a Human Machine Interface (HMI) to support mode awareness while driving in different automation modes. The work exists of three phases: Phase 1 defines functional requirements for HMI design based on literature review and 5 experimental studies including 146 participants. Phase 2 implements the functional requirements in HMI design through expert and focus group sessions. Phase 3 evaluates and improves upon the HMI design employing virtual reality and the RITE (Rapid Iterative Testing and Evaluation) method with 18 participants. The result is a continuous and holistic HMI design creating mode awareness through ambience. Findings from Phase 3 and previous research indicate that this HMI is comprehended well, with a relatively low task load, and with a good experienced system usability. It is important to additionally evaluate the HMI design resulting from the current study in driving simulators and in on-road tests. Such tests will provide an opportunity to verify and expand on the current study’s findings and to contribute to guidelines for HMI design.

Concurrent working memory task increases or decreases the flanker-related N2 amplitude.

Concurrent working memory (WM) task reduces available attentional control resources to perform the flanker task. However, controversy exists as to whether concurrent WM task increases or decreases flanker-related N2 amplitude. In a flanker task experiment, individuals were confronted with a low, middle, or high WM load task, while electroencephalography (EEG) data were recorded. The ERP results showed a larger flanker-related N2 amplitude while completing a middle or high WM load task compared to a low one. However, completing an additional high WM load task could not increase flanker-related N2 amplitude versus completing an additional middle WM load task. In sum, these results suggest that WM load can impair top-down cognitive control processes, thereby hampering flanker task performance. Importantly, the present study supports the account of flanker-related N2 processes linked to top-down attentional control resource allocation, but challenges the account of flanker-related N2 reflecting response conflict processes.

Intermuscular Coherence Of Rotator Cuff And Deltoid Muscles Varies With Force Output

PURPOSE:To identify intermuscular EMG coherence patterns between the rotator cuff and deltoid muscles at different force levels. METHODS:Surface EMG electrodes were used to record activity from the anterior deltoid (AD), middle deltoid (MD), and infraspinatus (IS) muscles of the dominant shoulder in 7 healthy individuals (mean age ± SD = 19 ± 1, 6 females, 1 male). An intramuscular fine-wire EMG electrode was inserted into supraspinatus (SS). Participants performed 30s contractions of isometric shoulder abduction in the scapular plane at 30° at 25% (low-load), 50% (medium-load) and 75% (high-load) of maximum voluntary contraction with visual feedback of the force output. EMG amplitudes and coherence of each muscle pair in the common drive (0-5 Hz), physiological force tremor (5-12 Hz), beta (15-35 Hz), low-gamma (35-60 Hz) and high-gamma (60-100 Hz) bands were compared across the 3 force levels. RESULTS:EMG amplitudes of all muscles increased as force level increased (all p < 0.05). EMG coherence between IS and deltoid muscles increased as force level increased in the low-gamma band (p < 0.05). SS-IS coherence was also the highest during high-load task in the low-gamma band. These data indicate that additional neural drive with higher force levels stemming from subcortical origin likely mediate the increase in coherence between these muscles. However, SS-IS coherence during the medium and high load tasks were lower than that during the low-load task in the common drive band (p < 0.05), indicating that the increase in drive to these muscles for increasing force output is not targeted at common last-order neurons. Similarly, SS-AD coherence during the high-load task was lower than that during the medium-load task in the beta band (p < 0.05) and SS-AD and SS-MD was lower in the tremor band (p < 0.05) at higher force loads. The reduction in coherence between the SS and deltoid muscles and the SS and IS may serve to protect the humeral head from migrating superiorly at higher force loads. CONCLUSIONS:Increasing force output led to decreased coherence within the rotator cuff muscles and between supraspinatus and the deltoid muscles, but increased coherence between infraspinatus and the deltoid muscles. This likely serves as a protective mechanism against superior humeral head migration.

Activity and Stress Estimation Based on OpenPose and Electrocardiogram for User-Focused Level-4-Vehicles

Increasing vehicle automation changes the role of humans in the car, which imposes new requirements on the design of in-vehicle software and hardware for flexible interior concepts. An option to meet these requirements is the development of user-focused automation based on combined user and context monitoring in real time. The system behavior may be dynamically adapted by adjusting the driving style or the interior lighting. Here, we present a hierarchical approach on the basis of semantically motivated low-level features for activity and stress recognition based on OpenPose and electrocardiogram data. A driving simulator study with 29 participants was conducted to determine the potential of the approach. Participants had to accomplish different tasks: manual driving (MD); mobile office work with varying task load levels (high task load: MO-HT, low task load: MO-LT); and relaxing (REL) during automated driving. The validation revealed that our model is able to correctly distinguish between different activities using only a set of primitive features (average precision: driving: 76% and mobile office work: 93%, relaxing: 86%). Furthermore, we evaluated a person-independent and a person-specific approach for stress detection and found that both strategies show similar trends in accordance with our predictions (person-independent: stress detected in MO-HT: 22%, MO-LT: 18%, MD: 18%, REL: 15%; person-specific: stress detected in MO-HT: 79%, MO-LT: 72%, MD: 65%, and REL: 50%). These results demonstrate the efficacy of using a lightweight semantic approach for activity recognition and stress detection as basis for user-focused vehicle automation.

Better Executive Functions Are Associated With More Efficient Cognitive Pain Modulation in Older Adults: An fMRI Study.

Growing evidence suggests that aging is associated with less efficient endogenous pain modulation as demonstrated by reduced conditioned pain modulation, and that these changes may be mediated by differences in frontal functioning. Yet, little is known about potential age-related changes in cognitive pain modulation, such as distraction from pain. In a first session, 30 healthy young (19–35 years) and 30 healthy older (59–82 years) adults completed a battery of neuropsychological tests. In a second session, we acquired functional brain images while participants completed a working memory task with two levels of cognitive load (high vs. low) and concurrently received individually adjusted heat stimuli (warm vs. painful). In both age groups, completing the high load task was associated with a significant reduction in the perceived intensity and unpleasantness of painful stimuli and a reduction in activation of brain regions involved in pain processing. Group comparisons revealed that young adults showed a stronger de-activation of brain regions involved in pain processing during the high load vs. the low load task, such as the right insula, right mid cingulate cortex and left supramarginal gyrus, compared to older adults. Older adults, on the other hand, showed an increased activation in the anterior cingulate cortex during the high load vs. low load task, when compared to young adults. Covariate analyses indicated that executive functions significantly predicted neural pain modulation in older adults: Better executive functions were associated with a more pronounced de-activation of the insula, thalamus and primary somatosensory cortex and increased activation of prefrontal regions during the high vs. low load task. These findings suggest that cognitive pain modulation is altered in older age and that the preservation of executive functions may have beneficial effects on the efficacy of distraction from pain.

Autonomy as a Teammate: Evaluation of Teammate-Likeness

What makes an autonomous system a teammate? The paper presents an evaluation of factors that can encourage a human perceive an autonomous system as a teammate rather than a tool. Increased perception of teammate-likeness more closely matches the human’s expectations of a teammate’s behavior, benefiting coordination and cooperation. Previous work with commercial pilots suggested that autonomous systems should provide visible cues of actions situated in the work environment. These results motivated the present study to investigate the impact of feedback modality on the teammate-likeness of an autonomous system under low (sequential events) and high (concurrent events) task loads. A Cognitive Assistant (CA) was developed as an autonomous teammate to support a (simulated) Mars mission. With centralized feedback, an autonomous teammate provided verbal and written information on a dedicated display. With distributed feedback, the autonomous teammate provided visible cues of actions in the environment in addition to centralized feedback. Perception of teammate-likeness increased with distributed feedback due to increased awareness of the CA’s actions, especially under low task load. In high task load, teamwork performance was higher with distributed feedback when compared to centralized feedback, where in low task load there was no difference in teamwork performance between feedback modalities.