Low Representation Of Women Research Articles

Determinants of under-Representation of Women on Boards of Directors: an Exploratory Study of African Public and Private Firms

The underlying causes for the low representation of women on board directorships has been the subject of considerable research when viewed in the context of North American, European and Asian economies and markets. In Africa, very few studies exist that examine this reality even if the socio-economic situation increasingly requires it. Indeed, women are a pillar of the social and economic life of African countries, as they constitute the equilibrium point of family stability and contributors to various essential economic activities alongside men in their community and country. This central role of African woman in all civic endeavours stands in stark contradiction to their general absence on the Board of Directors of most African companies. Although a recent ADB study indicates that the percentage of African women on boards is higher than on some other continents’ nonetheless, the fact remains that this low representation is astonishing. This research aims to understand the cause and effect relationship and to identify the determinants of this low representation of women as sitting board members. It is based on semi-structured interviews with women who are voting members on existing Boards of Directors of large firms in the public and private sectors. It shows that the low representation of women in boardrooms is explained more by socio-cultural factors rather than any organizational flaws or personal issues with these women.

Самооценка как возможный предиктор карьеры в области STEM: адаптация опросника для измерения пяти факторов самооценки

The problem of bringing girls into STEM-related specialty, is important for many countries, including Russia. Some studies show that various parameters of self-esteem can be associated with low representation of women in these professions. In order to assess the Russian data, concerning the extent to which self-esteem is related to the fact that women do not continue to work in STEM areas even after getting the corresponding education, the adaptation of English-language methodology based on multifactor self-evaluation (SDQ III) was held.For the purpose of adaptation of the questionnaire’sfull version we selected five factors which are proved to relate to infrequency of girls’ choices of STEM for professional training: "Mathematical self-estimation”, “Humanitarian self-estimation”, “Selfestimation of appearance”, “Self-estimation of relations with the same gender people”,“Self-estimation of relations with the opposite gender people”. The participants of the study were women (N = 532) over the age of 18 years. The confirmatory factoranalysisused to analyze thefactor structureofthequestionnaireproved the rightfulness of locationoffivetheoreticallylaidoutfactorsofself-estimation. Analysis of psychometric properties in modern test theory (IRT analysis) revealed that the questionnaire has satisfactory psychometric characteristics and can be used for the measurement of selected factors of self-estimation.

Underrepresentation of women in the senior levels of Brazilian science.

Despite significant progress, there is still a gender gap in science all over the world, especially at senior levels. Some progressive countries are recognizing the need to address barriers to gender equality in order to retain their best scientists and innovators, and ensure research excellence and social and economic returns on the investment made by taxpayers each year on training women scientists. We investigated the gender distribution of: (i) the productivity scholarship (PS) holders of the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, CNPq, N = 13,625), (ii) the members of the Brazilian Academy of Science (Academia Brasileira de Ciências, ABC, N = 899), and (iii) the amount of funding awarded for top quality research (“Universal” Call of CNPq, N = 3,836), between the years of 2013 and 2014. Our findings show evidence for gender imbalances in all the studied indicators of Brazilian science. We found that female scientists were more often represented among PS holders at the lower levels of the research ranking system (2). By contrast, male scientists were more often found at higher levels (1A and 1B) of PS holders, indicating the top scientific achievement, both in “Engineering, Exact Sciences, Earth Sciences”, and “Life Sciences”. This imbalance was not found in Humanities and Social Sciences. Only 14% of the ABC members were women. Humanities and Applied Social Sciences had a relatively low representation of women in the Academy (3.7%) compared to Engineering, Exact and Earth Sciences: 54.9% and Life Sciences: 41.4%. Finally, female scientists obtained significantly more funding at the lower level of the research ranking system (2), whereas male scientists obtained significantly more funding at the higher levels (1A and 1B). Our results show strong evidence of a gender imbalance in Brazilian science. We hope that our findings will be used to stimulate reforms that will result in greater equality in Brazilian science, and elsewhere.

Many Lives of Women Rectors at Turkish Universities

Women at Turkish Universities do not have the same level of representation as rectors as they have academics at the higher education. It is vital to have women, as one of the genders which comprises the community, at the higher education management as rectors to ensure the gender equality in Turkey. As well as the traditional roles assigned to women in Turkey, the lack of legal arrangements and challenges based on gender discrimination faced by women might be the cause of the women’s low representation in the higher education management. This study aims to explicate the experience of being a woman rector through qualitative data gathered from four rectors working at state and foundation universities in Turkey. The low representation of women in higher education management has been identified as a universal problem. It is obvious that woman academics in Turkish universities have low representation at the universities’ top management. Following two themes were identified: Perspectives of Women Rectors Regarding Their Roles and Challenges Faced. These themes were revealed through the voices of women rectors in Turkey. Therefore, this study is expected to bring unique insights both for university administrators and policy makers in terms of raising an awareness for the role of women leaders.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICAL CONSIDERATION AND PROPORTION OF WOMEN IN TOP LEADERSHIP POSITIONS

Introduction: In 2000 the United Nations member states ratified and committed themselves to achieving the eight millennium development goals. The most salient of the goals is number three that sought to promote gender equality and empower women. Despite the new constitution and other affirmative measures that have been undertaken by the Government of Kenya, there is still low representation of women in leadership in Kenya.Purpose: The study sought to determine the relationship between political consideration and proportion of women in top leadership positions in Kenya. The justification was driven by the realization that despite the affirmative action measures and the promulgation of the new Kenyan constitution which prohibits either gender from constituting more than two-thirds of any elected body, there has not been much progress in increasing the number of women in leadership positions.Research methodology: The thesis used the mixed method methodology (qualitative and quantitative). The study design was cross a sectional study and the data was collected using structure questionnaires, with closed ended questions for quantitative data and open ended questions for qualitative data. 221 senior managers in state corporations were sampled using stratified sampling technique. The questionnaires were self-administered.Results: The findings of this study suggest that there was a significant relationship between political considerations and Proportion of Women in Top Leadership Positions in state corporations in Kenya.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The thesis makes an important contribution in understanding the important role of political consideration Proportion of Women in Top Leadership Positions.

Implicit Bias, Stereotype Threat, and Political Correctness in Philosophy

This paper offers an unorthodox appraisal of empirical research bearing on the question of the low representation of women in philosophy. It contends that fashionable views in the profession concerning implicit bias and stereotype threat are weakly supported, that philosophers often fail to report the empirical work responsibly, and that the standards for evidence are set very low—so long as you take a certain viewpoint.

Online Research for the Impact of ICTs on Greek Women's Employability and Entrepreneurship

Due to the increasing demands of highly skilled employees on ICT, European industries could face shortage of employees in the ICT sector. In the existing problem of lack of ICT executives in the European labour market it is added the problem of low representation of women in jobs related to ICT. In Greece this problem is even more intense as a result of the economic conditions in the last six years. Our online research for the impact of ICT on Greek women’s employability and entrepreneurship revealed that women overwhelmingly recognize that the field of digital entrepreneurship is one of the most important indicators of success in the 21<sup>st</sup> century economy, as well as that there are large gaps and mismatches between the supply and demand for ICT skills. Women believe that they are under-represented in the ICT sector and there is a gender-based gap in both ICT professionals and new occupations associated with new communication technologies. The problem of under-representation of women in the ICT sector, highlights the need for design and implementation of actions which will enable the female population in training and participation in entrepreneurship and employment with focus on ICT.

Impact and significance of the 2016 ‘Campaign to Change the Male Face of Parliament’ in Iran

Iranian women have never represented more than 5.9% of sitting parliamentarians in the Islamic Republic of Iran. This compares poorly with relevant regional and global averages. In the lead up to the 2016 parliamentary elections, the women’s movement took action to address the low representation of women in the legislature by launching the ‘Campaign to Change the Male Face of Parliament’. The Campaign did not reach its goal of achieving 50 seats for women in the 2016–2020 Parliament. It was also subject to some criticism for effectively (or apparently) legitimising what many women view as a broken form of government unable to promote and protect women’s rights in any meaningful sense. However, the Campaign was an important exercise in democracy and had significant higher-order impacts on voter behaviour and women’s capacities. Through personal communication with three Campaign activists, this profile provides an authoritative account of the Campaign experience and its impact and significance for the future of women’s empowerment in Iran.

Lige for lige? Kønssegregering i Folketingudvalg og i ledelsen af det private erhvervsliv

In this article, we describe and discuss the vertical and horizontal gender segregation in the elites of Danish Parliamentary politics and private business. Our new data on the gender distribution on corporate boards of publicly traded firms show how women are absent among board chairs and CEOs and illustrates the low representation of women among board members. Among members of Parliamentary committees a more equal gender representation is found, however, there is a clear tendency toward a vertical and a horizontal segregation. Our findings show that women MPs are less represented in certain Parliamentary committees on foreign affairs, economy, finance, tax and transportation. This distribution mirrors other country studies on Parliamentary committees. We propose two hypotheses in order to explain our explorative study: a thesis on a gender bias of certain policy areas and a hypothesis on the significance of the ‘public eye’. Concerning the latter, our results illustrate how institutions subject to ‘the public eye’ have more balanced gender compositions than institutions with less public attention, like corporate boards.

The Career Length and Service of Female Policymakers in the US House of Representatives

Various studies have outlined the institutional (e.g. the existence of quota laws and the electoral system type of a country) and non-institutional factors (e.g. the political culture of a country) that account for variation in women’s representation, in general, and, in more detail, the low representation of women in the US Congress. However, no study has, so far, compared the Congressional career paths of men and women in order to understand whether this gender gap in representation stems from a difference in terms of the duration and importance of the careers of male and female policymakers. Using data on all US House elections between 1972 and 2012, we provide such an analysis, evaluating whether or not the political careers of women in the US House of Representatives are different from the political careers of their male counterparts. Our findings indicate that the congressional careers of men and women are alike and, if anything, women may even have a small edge over their male colleagues.

Issues and Challenges around Low Representation of Women in Administrative Posts in Schools

AbstractThis study aimed at establishing factors that contribute to low representation of women in administrative posts in primary schools in Lower Gweru District. This study reviews literature on issues and concepts related to the study as put forward by other writers and researchers within which the problem of the study was discussed and analyzed. The review of the related literature was done mainly to indicate why few women are found in administrative positions in primary schools in Lower Gweru District. The researchers reviewed the related literature so that an understanding of major issues on women and administration would be grasped. The literature review showed that there were gender disparities in educational management in schools. Women should accept change and perceive taking headship positions as a way of climbing to the upper echelons of educational organization.

An Investigation of Factors that Contribute to Low Representation of Women in Administrative Posts in Primary Schools

The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that contribute to low representation of women in administrative posts in schools. The researchers used the descriptive survey design. The instr...

Women in the Duma: Why Post-Soviet Russia Has Low Female Representation? A view from India

Quarter of a century after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the Russian Duma, lower house of Parliament, still has a low representation of women. The article seeks to examine the causes for this phenomenon. It examines the factors that have been found to be responsible for the gender gap in parliaments across the world. It will then present this evidence in the light of the Russian experience to understand what lies behind the low level of representation of women in Russian national parliament. A mix of political, socio-economic and cultural factors will be analysed in detail to fi nd the causative aspects, analysing the inter-linkages between these various factors in play.

Gender Earnings Differentials and Pay Structure of Italian Family Managers

This paper analyses a dimension of the gender pay gap that has received so far a limited attention and that concerns not the level but the form of pay. The econometric analysis we performed has considered a fairly homogenous type of occupation represented by family management and with a great bargaining power in setting their rewards. With this strategy we aim at estimating gender disparities not driven by sex segregation by positions in firm hierarchy, but disparities more likely linked to preferences and identity. Probit models have been estimated to test whether or not the difference between women and men in pay structure of family managers (fixed salary or variable earnings) is statistically significant. We obtain that the female presence in top executive jobs, even after controlling for a large set of firm and workplace characteristics, is associated with a substantial lower incidence of the variable payment component. These gender differences in the structure of compensation packages are confirmed by IV Probit estimates that address potential omitted variables and endogeneity biases. We conclude that human capital factors, sectoral segregation or differences between firms are not the only drivers of gender differentials in the form of pay. We also suggest that lower representation of women in variable earning schemes might be an indicator of their minor attitudes toward competition.

The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes in the Work of Managers

Abstract Gender inequality remains a significant factor affecting the status of men and women in society, despite some progress, thanks to the measures that have been introduced in recent years. Normally we look at the men that they are leaders, they are ambitious, rational and logical-thinking. Women managers take care of the family, which reduces their opportunities to succeed in recruiting managerial position. Often stereotyped manager(man) receives rather a person of the same sex as he is. The result of our research is showing effect of gender stereotypes resulting in low representation of women at senior management levels.

Women and Politics in Nigeria : Strategizing for 2015

For Eme Edith and millions of other Nigerian women, taking part in elective politics is not easy. Women often do not receive the support and mentoring they need to compete with their male counterparts. In turn, many voters do not fully appreciate the benefits of having a mix of men and women in government. As a result, there is currently a low representation of women at all levels of government in Nigeria. In the country’s general election in 2011, female candidates fared poorly, with only 32 women elected to the national parliament out of 469 members, which is barely 8% representation. To address this, the paper suggests providing budding female politicians with training and support, complemented by community enlightenment campaigns. With this assistance, Nigerian women, will now be better equipped to participate in forthcoming national and local elections in Nigeria come 2015.

Shifting the Gaze on the Representation of Women in Parliament in the Pacific

The low representation of women in Pacific Island parliaments has been a cause of much concern and little scholarly research. Representation in the independent Pacific Island countries is extremely low but the inclusion of the French overseas territories shows a much more varied picture, with French Polynesia now second only to Rwanda for the percentage of women in its parliament. The assumptions of the literature on women’s representation have been challenged by the emergence of countries in Africa and Central and Latin America at the top of the league table. As of August 2014 the only Western countries still in the top ten of the Inter Parliamentary Union' league table are Sweden and Finland. It is timely then to consider whether women’s successes in the South are attributable to similar or different factors from those tried and tested in the Western scholarship. In particular, it is relevant to ask whether there are better indicators to explain the varied pattern of women’s representation in the Pacific. This paper draws on the analysis of women’s representation in Western democracies before comparing Africa and the Pacific Island countries. This paper is part of a broader study that draws comparisons between the progress of women’s representation in Africa and the Pacific.

Girls in science and technology in secondary and post-secondary education: the case of France

Based on surveys undertaken by the Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques (France’s National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies) and by the Direction de l'évaluation de la prospective et de la performance (Directorate of Evaluation, Forecasting and Performance), this article examines the evolution of female student enrollment in scientific streams in secondary and post-secondary education in France over a period of approximately 20 years, from 1985 to 2008. The aim is to study the changes and constants in girls’ choices in science and technology education. The results show that girls’ choices to study science and technology have undergone clear changes during this period. These changes have been positive at the secondary level, but rather more ambiguous at the post-secondary level. Both an appraisal of positive developments and the persistently low representation of women in scientific fields will be offered.

Mujeres en sanidad: entre la igualdad y la desigualdad

This paper aims to analyze the obstacles that female doctors should fight along their career. We affirm that the process of feminization of professions like Medicine does not result in an improvement for women professional careers. We also affirm that leadership positions are not distributed proportionately between men and women. The increase of women among Medicine students, residents and doctors is not accompanied by a proportional growth of women in management and leadership positions in hospitals, but there is a low representation of women in top positions. We also point that medical practice is not unrelated to gender discrimination existing in our society but, unlike the widespread view, is a reflection

Are women pawns in the political game? Evidence from elections to the Spanish Senate

This paper investigates the reasons behind the low representation of women among legislators. Using data from Spain, we find that parties tend to nominate female candidates to poorer positions on the ballot. We examine whether this is due to voter bias or party bias, and find two pieces of evidence supporting the latter: female candidates attract more votes, and political competition improves the quality of positions to which female candidates are assigned. Moreover, gender quotas fail to erode the strategic nomination of female candidates. The evidence in this paper helps explain why quotas in candidate lists might often lead to disappointing increases in the number of elected female politicians.