Low-income African American Mothers Research Articles

African American mothers talk to their preadolescents about honesty and lying.

Objectives: While existing work points to the ways parenting behaviors and specific value socialization approaches influence children's internalization of moral values (Baumrind, Child Development 43, 261-267, 1972; Hoffman, Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice, 2001; Grusec & Davidov, Child Development, 81, 687-709, 2010), little work has considered the experiences of African American and lower-income families. The current study capitalized on the availability of 53 video-recorded mother-preadolescent conversations about their disagreements from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (Vogel et al., Early head start children in grade 5: Long-term follow-up of the early head start research and evaluation study sample. OPRE Report # 2011-8, 2010). Methods: Using inductive analysis, we assessed mothers' affective tone, communication styles, and message content during the discussion of problems involving honesty and lying. Results: Mothers tended to display warm yet firm affect, incorporate both autonomy-supportive and dominant-directive communication styles, assert that lying is never acceptable, and explain why lying is problematic. Conclusions: Mothers' affect, communication styles, and message content reflected a no-nonsense approach to transmitting values about honesty to their children. To our knowledge, the current study is the first qualitative observational investigation of low-income African American mothers' conversations regarding honesty with their children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

A phenomenological study of the breastfeeding experiences of African American women and the implications of societal racialization


 Background. UNICEF & The World Health Organization (WHO) recommend exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life (UNICEF & WHO, 2017). Research has reported reduced risk for all selected pediatric diseases with breastfeeding durations meeting this recommendation. Despite the proven benefits, breastfeeding rates for low-income African American mothers remain far below the guidelines established by Healthy People 2030. 
 Purpose. The purpose of this research study was to explore the socio-cultural barriers and assets of breastfeeding experienced by African American mothers. The study was designed to elicit responses focused on barriers and facilitators of breastfeeding, specifically focusing on race as a key upstream determinant for both positive and negative experiences. 
 Methods. In this study, a hermeneutic phenomenological qualitative approach was used conducting focus groups and in-depth interviews. Eight African American WIC eligible mothers consented to participate in the study. 
 Results. Data was analyzed using two coders, who looked for themes within the text derived from participants’ experiences. Four main themes emerged from the experiences of the participants: (a) Healthcare provider bias, (b) Distrust/Fear, (c) Agency/Control, and (d) Support Networks. 
 Conclusion. This study offers a novel approach to examining disparities in breastfeeding rates, duration, and exclusivity through directly engaging low-income African American mothers. This study suggests culturally appropriate training for providers, increasing the diversity of providers, providing peer coaches, and support groups for African American women would be beneficial for African American WIC eligible women wanting to be successful at breastfeeding.

Destined for Greatness: A Family-Based Stress Management Intervention for African-American Mothers and their Children

RationaleAfrican-American mothers in the U.S. experience high rates of stress, placing them at risk for depression, anxiety, and preterm births, and their children at risk for poor social-emotional development later in childhood. Yet, few studies have developed and tested family-based interventions that target optimal management of stress in this population. ObjectiveThe current mixed methods study examined whether a six-week family-based intervention (e.g., cognitive behavioral stress management intervention component for mothers and mindfulness-based kindness curriculum for their children) was effective in improving psychosocial outcomes among low-income African-American mothers and increasing prosocial behaviors in their children. MethodSeventy-two mothers (28% pregnant, 72% postpartum) completed pre- and post-intervention assessments of stress, depression, anxiety, and self-efficacy for stress management. Prosocial behaviors for 38 of their children (3–10 years of age) were also assessed via mother's self-report and two observational child assessments of sharing and helping behaviors. Qualitative interviews at post-intervention and reunion focus groups (up to two years later) were also conducted. ResultsMothers showed significant reductions in perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and anxiety, as well as improved self-efficacy for stress management at post-intervention. Although observational assessments of children's sharing and helping behaviors did not change, mothers' qualitative responses indicated improvements in their child's prosocial behaviors at home. Qualitative responses also revealed unique stressors that mothers experienced, the short- and long-term impact of these interventions on mothers and their children, and program recommendations. ConclusionsThese results support the efficacy of family-based stress management interventions in this at-risk population.

Association of Kinship Support and Externalizing Problems Among Low Income African American Mothers and Adolescents

Association of Kinship Support and Externalizing Problems Among Low Income African American Mothers and Adolescents

Intimate Partner Violence and Parenting: Examining the Roles of Parenting Stress, Timing, and Maternal Abuse History

Maternal intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure has been linked to negative parenting outcomes. Studies suggest that parenting stress is an intermediary between IPV exposure and parenting, though past work has relied on small, clinically- referred samples. Moreover, it is unclear if parenting is differentially affected by a mother’s recent versus past history of IPV exposure, or whether a mother’s childhood abuse history moderates the associations of IPV with parenting stress and parenting behaviors. The current study examines whether recent IPV, versus past IPV, has stronger associations with parenting stress and parenting behaviors and tests whether maternal abuse history moderates these associations. Using structural equation modeling, we tested relations between IPV (frequency and recency), parenting stress, and parenting behaviors cross-sectionally and longitudinally in a large community sample of IPV-exposed low-income Hispanic and African American mothers of children aged 0–14 years (N = 1159). We found that mothers who reported IPV exposure in the past year reported higher negative and lower positive parenting behaviors than mothers who reported less recent exposure. Further, we found that the frequency and timing of IPV exposure affected parenting indirectly through increased parenting stress. However, a childhood history of abuse did not appear to sensitize women to these effects. These findings suggest that psychological interventions aimed at reducing the subjective experience of parenting stress, as well as increased access to resources that reduce objective childcare burden, are important for promoting resilience among families exposed to violence.

“Sometimes you have to pop them”: Conflict and Meaning-Making in a Parenting Class

Abstract Parenting education is designed to address problems associated with childhood poverty, but such programs have had limited success. This ethnographic study of a parenting class serving low-income African American mothers examines tensions between parents and instructors over the use of physical force in disciplining children or in resolving conflicts more broadly. The article uses the concept of cultural frames to analyze how parents and instructors understood the issues at stake, showing significant differences between the frame the instructors used (discouraging all forms of force) and that of the parents (who saw force as sometimes necessary and effective). The instructors' therapeutic frame positioned children as vulnerable and prioritized self-esteem and positive relationships, and it did not resonate with parents, whose protective frame emphasized their responsibility to keep children safe in a dangerous world. This study examines interactions between parents and instructors to show that when frames come into conflict in social settings, collective affirmation of a particular frame can be a source of resistance and solidarity, thus raising questions about the potential of anti-poverty interventions that do not pay attention to context or meaning making.

Black Mothering in Action: The Racial-Class Socialization Practices of Low-Income Black Single Mothers

African Americans have long dealt with racism, discrimination, and racialized state and vigilante violence. As such, African American parents must educate their children about the realities of racism in the United States and how to cope with racism and discrimination. This practice, known as racial socialization, is a key aspect of Black parents’ parenting practices. Much of this labor tends to fall on the shoulders of Black mothers. To date, most of the scholarship on Black mothers’ racial socialization practices focuses on Black middle-class mothers. In this study, the author uses in-depth interviews with low-income African American single mothers in Virginia to examine how low-income Black single mothers racially socialize their children, what major concerns they express regarding raising Black children, and how their racial socialization practices and the concerns they express compare with those of Black middle-class mothers. Paralleling previous studies, the findings show that low-income Black single mothers generally fear for their children’s, especially their sons’, safety. They also invoke respectability politics when racially socializing their children, encouraging them not to dress or behave in ways that will reinforce stereotypes of Black boys as thugs or criminals. Diverging from previous research, however, the author argues that low-income Black single mothers’ employment of respectability politics is largely aspirational, as, unlike middle-class mothers, they are not able to assert their class status in an effort to prevent their children from experiencing discrimination.

Involving Urban Single Low-Income African American Mothers in Genomic Research: Giving Voice to How Place Matters in Health Disparities and Prevention Strategies.

This article describes the process of using principles from community-based participatory action research to involve low-income, single, African American mothers on the south side of Chicago in genomic research, including as citizen scientists. The South Chicago Black Mothers' Resiliency Project used a mixed methods design to investigate how the stress of living in neighborhoods with high levels of violence affects mothers' mental and physical health. This article seeks to serve as a model for physicians and scholars interested in successfully involving low-income African American mothers in genomic research, and other health-related activities in ways that are culturally sensitive and transformative. The lives of Black mothers who struggle under interlocking systems of oppression that are often hidden from view of most Americans are at the center of this article. Therefore, we provide extensive information about the procedures used to collect the various types of data, the rationale for our procedures, the setting, the responses of mothers in our sample and methodological challenges. This study also has implications for the current COVID-19 pandemic and the need to train a corps of citizen scientists in health and wellness to avoid future extreme loss of life such as the 106,195 lives lost in the United States as of June 1, 2020.

Parenting Profiles of Young Low-income African American and Latina Mothers and Infant Socioemotional Development

SYNOPSISObjective. Parenting styles are complex and have been well studied in parents of children and adolescents; however, less is known about parenting styles in early infancy, especially among ethnic minority groups. This study examines empirically identifiable profiles of early parenting that are associated with later infant socioemotional development. Design. 239 young, low-income, African American (54.8%) and Latina (45.2%) mothers were videorecorded with their 3-month-old infants. At 13-months, mothers reported on their infants’ socioemotional development. Results. Person-oriented latent class analysis was used to identify four parenting styles: Sensitive/Stimulating (25%), Warm/Unstimulating (37%), Engaged/Tough (22%), and Disengaged (16%). The most common style among African American mothers was Engaged/Tough (34.4%), and the most prevalent style among Latina mothers was Warm/Unstimulating (48.2%). Infants of Warm/Unstimulating mothers had the lowest reported levels of problem behavior at 13 months, whereas infants of Sensitive/Stimulating mothers had the highest reported mastery motivation. Infants of Disengaged mothers had the highest reported levels of internalizing and total problem behavior and the lowest reported mastery motivation. Conclusions. Qualitatively distinct styles of early parenting link to different infant socioemotional outcomes in ways not fully captured by single dimensions of parenting. Practitioners working with young mothers from diverse ethnic backgrounds may be more effective at promoting positive parenting and infant development if they understand and can build on the strengths of certain parenting styles.

Longitudinal associations between relationship quality and maternal depression among low-income African American and Hispanic mothers.

This examination of 237 African American and Hispanic mothers of young children explored the longitudinal linkages between romantic partner relationship quality and maternal depressive symptoms among low-income ethnic minority populations. Most studies to date have largely focused on majority non-Hispanic White populations, as well as married partner dyads, and few have utilized longitudinal designs. At 3 time points, participants completed a series of questionnaires including the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) for partner relationship quality and a revised version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CESD-R) Scale for maternal depressive symptoms during home-visit interviews. Both concurrent and prospective correlations were significant and negative, indicating a higher level of relationship quality was associated with fewer depressive symptoms. After adjusting for potential confounders, partner relationship quality was prospectively associated with maternal depressive symptoms but not vice versa. This pattern did not differ by maternal ethnicity. The findings of this study support and contribute to the limited research conducted to date to uncover patterns and influences of associations between romantic partner relationship quality and depressive symptoms in representative samples of ethnic minority populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

“Whatever I Can Imagine, We Did It”: Home-Based Parental Involvement Among Low-Income African-American Mothers With Preschoolers Enrolled in Head Start

ABSTRACTResearchers are increasingly focusing on the home-based parental involvement experiences of low-income, African American families with young children. These studies document the positive ways that parental involvement can promote the school readiness of preschoolers who are at risk of not being ready for kindergarten. In light of the paucity of research on this demographic group and developmental period, this study examines the parental involvement beliefs and practices of low-income, African American mothers with preschoolers transitioning to kindergarten. Specifically, we conducted qualitative interviews with 20 low-income, African American mothers of preschoolers enrolled in Head Start. This research was informed by the Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (HD-S) model of parental involvement and resilience theory, which allowed us to explore mothers’ beliefs about who should be responsible for preschool children’s transition to kindergarten and how these beliefs were implemented in mothers’ home-based activities. Our findings are consistent with tenets of both the Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler model and resilience theory. However, our findings expand these frameworks by detailing the unique experiences of low-income, African American mothers. The research findings offer recommendations for promoting parental involvement in early child care settings and the elementary schools into which children will be transitioning.

Complexity of care: Stressors and strengths among low-income mother-daughter dyads

ABSTRACTResearch on informal care for older adults tends to consider middle- and upper-class individuals. Consequently, less is known about caregiving among low-income families. We present findings from an exploratory qualitative study of low-income African American mothers (n = 5) and their caregiving daughters (n = 5). Guided by a feminist framework, we consider how individual, familial, and societal factors contribute to the intersectional complexities of caregiving. Despite the unavailability of formal resources, we found the 10 women positive in their outlook. Furthermore, this study contributes to a growing body of research that identifies both negative and positive aspects of caregiving among an underrepresented population.

Increasing fruit and vegetable intake in low-income minority children: African American mothers as experts on effective strategies and barriers to FV.

Objective: Eating habits and taste preferences begin to develop early in life, yet little is known about self-efficacy and struggles related to promoting FV among young children directly from the maternal perspective. Poor diet quality, including low FV consumption, is associated with race/ ethnicity- and income-based health disparities in the U.S., with low-income African Americans reporting the lowest intakes. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore parenting strategies that are perceived as effective for encouraging FV consumption among low-income African American mothers of young children in order to inform future interventions for this at-risk population. Methods: Mothers of 3 to 5-year-old children from two Head Start programs in a southeastern state of the U.S. were recruited for focus group participation. Focus group transcripts were analyzed using a content analysis to identify main themes in relation to perceived effective practices, and key barriers and facilitators to encouraging children’s FV consumption. Results: Accessibility strategies were uniquely perceived as effective for encouraging fruit. Negotiating/coaxing, making available, and using rules were perceived as effective and unique practices for vegetables. Child openness and maternal FV preferences facilitated maternal efforts to encourage FV consumption. Mothers identified three primary barriers to FV consumption: 1) child’s “difficult” temperament; 2) negative family influences, and 3) low maternal FV preferences/modeling. Conclusions: Low-income African American mothers utilize a large number and variety of strategies to encourage children’s FV intake. Mothers themselves can serve as a key source of tips/strategies for each other’s social and educational support. Future research should examine specific strategies that emerged in the current study in relation to actual FV consumption in lowincome African American children

Health Beliefs and the Developmental Treatment Cascade.

* Abbreviation: EI — : early intervention In the current issue of Pediatrics, Magnusson et al1 describe findings from 22 semistructured interviews with low-income African American and Hispanic mothers. The mothers discuss health beliefs that facilitate or impede engagement with early intervention (EI) services for their children after a positive screen for developmental delay in the primary care setting. From these interviews, the authors identify 5 themes: (1) comparisons with other children influence perceptions of their own children’s development, (2) perceptions that children develop at their own pace can lead mothers to believe their children are developing normally, (3) social networks inform decisions to seek services, (4) competing stressors are often prioritized over services, and (5) conflicting information about EI referral processes can discourage engagement with services. These health beliefs clearly have important consequences for individual patients. What may be less clear is the role such health beliefs can (and should) play in informing research and clinical approaches to developmental screening within US pediatric primary care delivery systems. The principal implication of Magnusson et al’s1 study is that it offers a series of evidence-informed hypotheses for why families sort into those who engage with developmental services and those who … Address correspondence to Michael Silverstein, MD, MPH, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Medical Center, 1 Boston Medical Center Pl, Vose Hall 3rd Floor, Boston, MA 02118. E-mail: michael.silverstein{at}bmc.org

Beliefs Regarding Development and Early Intervention Among Low-Income African American and Hispanic Mothers.

Understand the role of health beliefs in shaping maternal decisions regarding help-seeking for children with developmental delay (DD) and explore differences between African American and Hispanic mothers. Open-ended, semistructured interviews were conducted with African American and Hispanic mothers of children aged 0 to 36 months with DD. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed by using inductive content analysis. Mothers (n = 22) were African American (36%) or Hispanic (64%), 25 to 34 years old (64%), had less than a high school education (59%), and had children receiving public insurance (95%). Five major themes emerged describing the role of maternal health beliefs in shaping key stages of the help-seeking pathway for children with DD: (1) "I can see" (observing other children and making comparisons); (2) "Children are different and develop in their own time" (perceiving that their child might be different, but not necessarily delayed); (3) "It's not that I don't trust the doctor" (relying on social networks rather than pediatricians to inform the help-seeking pathway); (4) "I got so much going on" (difficulty prioritizing early intervention [EI] because of competing stressors); and (5) limited and conflicting information (delaying or forgoing EI because of limited or conflicting information). Differences between African American and Hispanic mothers are also described. Understanding maternal health beliefs and expectations regarding DD and EI, acknowledging the influence of social networks on help-seeking, and addressing social and financial stressors are critical to ensuring that children with DD are identified and supported at an early age.

Ethnic differences in mothering qualities and relations to academic achievement.

Although qualities of mothering behavior have been consistently linked with children's academic outcomes, mothers from different ethnic groups may emphasize different dimensions with their children. The present investigation aims to evaluate and compare the dimensionality of mothering in low-income African American (n = 151) and Mexican American (n = 182) mothers during early childhood and its predictive utility for children's academic achievement. Video-recorded mother-child interactions with children at 2½ and 3½ years of age were rated using 6 mothering quality items from a widely used global rating system. A bifactor measurement model of these 6 items yielded a general sensitive support factor and a specific intrusive-insensitive factor. The bifactor model fit the data significantly better at both time points than either a single-factor or a 2-factor model. Invariance testing supported the stability of the measurement model across the 2 time points. Invariance testing by ethnicity indicated differences in factor loadings as well as mean levels of the specific factor of intrusive-insensitivity. The specific factor reflecting intrusive-insensitive mothering at age 2½ years was associated with poorer subsequent reading achievement for African American but not Mexican American children, suggesting the specific factor reflected qualitatively different parenting constructs for the 2 ethnic groups. Critical examination of what constitutes more optimal parenting yielded both similar and dissimilar characteristics and their relations across culturally different groups of families. Such knowledge should contribute to the development of more effective interventions for ethnically diverse families. (PsycINFO Database Record

A mediation analysis study: The influence of mothers' dental anxiety on children's dental utilization among low-income African Americans.

The aim of this study was to test a hypothesized mediation model to explain associations between mothers' dental anxiety and children's dental utilization through the mothers' own dental utilization. Two hundred and fourteen low-income African American mothers with young children (age 31-59 months) completed a study questionnaire which assessed (i) mothers' dental anxiety; (ii) mothers' dental utilization (seeing a dentist at least once a year) and (iii) children's dental utilization (at least one non-study-related dental visit during the 36-month study period). The hypothesized mediation model consisted of these three elements with both a direct path from mothers' dental anxiety to children's dental utilization and an indirect path from mothers' dental anxiety to children's dental utilization through mothers' dental utilization. Mediation analysis with bootstrapping was conducted to test the hypothesized model. The mediation analysis indicated significant total effect of mothers' dental anxiety on children's dental utilization. The standardized total effect of mothers' anxiety on children's dental utilization was -0.172 (SE=.084, P=.041), and the standardized indirect effect of mothers' anxiety on children's dental utilization mediated by mothers' dental utilization was -0.069 (SE=.039, P=.076). The direct effect from mothers' anxiety to children's dental utilization was not statistically significant (P=.261) after adjusting for the mothers' dental utilization. In this low-income African American sample, there was a trend for mothers' dental anxiety to be associated with children's dental utilization indirectly through mothers' own dental utilization, while the direct influence of mothers' dental anxiety on children's dental utilization was not seen. This suggests that mothers' dental utilization might explain how mothers' dental anxiety impacts children's early dental utilization.

Body Image Models among Low-income African American Mothers and Daughters in the Southeast United States.

Obesity among low-income African American women has been studied using the concepts of both satisfaction and acceptance. The satisfaction frame suggests greater satisfaction with their bodies than their white counterparts, irrespective of size. The acceptance frame suggests that alternative aesthetics serve as resistance against intersectional marginalization. Yet, while these women accept their body size in defiance of thinness ideals, they may not be satisfied. We describe cultural models of body image among mothers and daughters in Alabama. We found that respectability, material consumption, and parental support were important factors determining positive body image, exceeding descriptions of physical features. We further found that those expressing greater body dissatisfaction emphasized respectability, whereas those with less dissatisfaction assigned importance to consumerism and physical form. These findings suggest divergences between biomedical messaging and lived experience. They also challenge uncritical or universalist applications of these frames when interpreting African American women's perceptions of their own bodies.

Early maternal depressive symptom trajectories: Associations with 7-year maternal depressive symptoms and child behavior.

This study examines potential mechanisms linking maternal depressive symptoms over 2 years postpartum with child behavior problems at school-age in a sample of adolescent mothers and their first-born child. Potential mechanisms include: mother-reported caregiving engagement at 6 months; observed parental nurturance and control, and child competence and affect at 24 months; and mother-reported resilience at 7 years based on achievement of adult developmental tasks. One hundred eighteen low-income African American adolescent mothers were recruited at delivery and followed through child age 7 years. Maternal depressive symptom trajectories over 24 months were estimated (low, medium, and high) based on mother-reported depressive symptoms. Direct and indirect associations between depressive symptom trajectories with 7-year maternal depressive symptoms and child behavior problems were examined. The high maternal depressive symptom trajectory was associated with 7-year maternal depressive symptoms (b = 5.52, SE = 1.65, p < .01) and child internalizing problems (b = 7.60, SE = 3.12, p = .02) and externalizing problems (b = 6.23, SE = 3.22, p = .05). Caregiving engagement among high depressive symptom trajectory mothers was significantly associated with observed child affect (b = -0.21, SE = 0.11, p = 0.05). Parental nurturance in toddlerhood mediated the association between high maternal depressive symptom trajectory and child internalizing problems at 7 years (indirect effect b = 2.33, 95% CI: 0.32-5.88). Findings suggest that family based interventions to promote parenting and adolescent resiliency strengthening may be beneficial in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record

Grocery games: How ethnically diverse low-income mothers support children’s reading and mathematics

Parent-child interactions are an important source of variability in children’s learning. We asked: (1) to what extent do low-income and ethnically diverse mothers engage in maternal writing support, math support, and directiveness in a grocery shopping game; (2) do these maternal behaviors predict gains in children’s reading and mathematics from age 5 (T1) to first grade (T2), and (3) what role do ethnicity and children’s baseline skills (T1) play in these associations. Participants were 212 low-income African American, Dominican, Mexican, and Chinese mothers and their 5-year-old children. Maternal writing support predicted gains in children’s reading skills but math support did not predict gains in children’s mathematics. Maternal directiveness negatively predicted gains in both children’s reading and mathematics. Ethnicity and children’s baseline skills did not moderate these associations. Implications for family-focused interventions serving low-income and ethnically diverse populations are discussed.