Low Effortful Control Research Articles

Children with low effortful control benefit in high-quality home learning environment: Evidence from China.

The present study examined whether the home learning environment was longitudinally associated with children's language and cognitive development, and whether child effortful control moderated this association during the preschool years. Three hundred twenty-six Chinese parent-child dyads (at baseline, Mage = 63.36 months, SD = 9.87) were included in this 10-month follow-up study. Data were acquired from multiple sources, comprising paternal reports, maternal reports, and standardized tasks. Results revealed that the home learning environment positively predicted preschool-aged children's language and cognitive development. Interestingly, this association was significant among children with lower effortful control but not with higher effortful control. The findings supported the differential susceptibility model by showing that children with low effortful control benefited more from early experience when parents provided sufficient language and cognitive stimulation at home. These suggest that providing a high-quality home learning environment may be a feasible target for interventions aimed at improving the development of children with low effortful control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Tonic and phasic irritability in 6-year-old children: differential correlates and outcomes.

Irritability is a common and clinically important problem in children and adolescents and a risk factor for later psychopathology and impairment. Irritability can manifest in both tonic (e.g., irritable, touchy mood) and phasic (e.g., temper outburst) forms, and recent studies of adolescents suggest that they predict different outcomes. However, no studies have examined whether tonic and phasic irritability are empirically distinguishable in 6-year-old children and whether they have distinct correlates and outcomes. We utilized data from a longitudinal study of an unselected community sample of four hundred fifty-two 6-year-olds followed at 3-year intervals to age 15. We conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using relevant items from a diagnostic interview and several parent-report inventories. The CFA identified dimensions that were consistent with tonic and phasic irritability. Tonic irritability was independently associated with concurrent parent-reported temperamental negative affectivity and internalizing and externalizing disorders at age 6 and predicted higher rates of internalizing psychopathology, and suicidal ideation, in adolescence. Phasic irritability was independently associated with concurrent parent-reported temperamental negative affectivity, surgency, and low effortful control, maladaptive parenting styles and practices, and externalizing disorders at age 6, and predicted higher rates of externalizing psychopathology in adolescence. Tonic and phasic irritability in 6-year-old children appear to be distinguishable constructs with different temperament and parenting correlates and psychopathological outcomes. Distinguishing these components has implications for research on the etiology and pathophysiology of irritability and developing effective treatments.

Problems of Self-Regulation in Forms and Functions of Aggression

The role of self-regulation in aggression has typically been studied by neglecting the multidimensional nature of aggression, which differentiates between its forms (overt vs. relational) and functions (proactive vs. reactive). Besides, the contribution of two aspects of self-regulation (effortful control and reactive control) in the regulation of aggression has been ignored. Studies suggest that only reactive aggressive children have low effortful control because aggression results from the insufficient inhibition of an aggressive impulse. On the other hand, some studies suggest that proactive aggression has no deficits in effortful control, because proactive aggression is referred to as premeditated behaviour driven by instrumental goals. However, the conceptualization of proactive aggression as premeditated with higher levels of forethought and perseverance is not sustainable, because proactive aggression is associated with reactive undercontrol which corresponds to impulsivity. This paper addresses this problem by reviewing recent research suggesting that both forms and functions of aggression are related to inadequate effortful control. Studies suggest that forms and functions of aggression are related to various aspects of impulsivity. Further, reactive overcontrolled children are, due to their behavioural inhibition, better able to attenuate their aggression. Future studies should determine which forms and functions of aggression are characterized by low reactive overcontrol, i.e. low behavioural inhibition. For children whose aggression is driven by weak reactive control, effortful control is necessary to inhibit aggressive impulses. Interventions are suggested for reinforcing self-regulation in forms and functions of aggression.

Is the Association Between Early Childhood Screen Media Use and Effortful Control Bidirectional? A Prospective Study During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Individual differences in effortful control, a component of temperament, reflecting the ability to use attention and other cognitive processes to self-regulate emotion and behavior, contribute to child academic adjustment, social competence, and wellbeing. Research has linked excessive screen time in early childhood to reduced self-regulation ability. Furthermore, research suggests that parents are more likely to use screens with children who have more challenging temperaments, such as low levels of effortful control. Since screen time by children between the ages of 0 and 18 has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, it remains timely to investigate the developmental pattern of association between child screen media use and effortful control. We hypothesize that higher levels of screen media intake at age 3.5 will be associated with lower effortful control at age 4.5 and that lower effortful control at 3.5 will contribute to more screen media intake at age 4.5. This study draws on participants followed longitudinally over the span of 2-years for an investigation of Canadian preschoolers’ screen media use during the pandemic (N = 316, Wave 1). A follow-up with this sample was completed in 2021 (N = 265, Wave 2). Analyses using a cross-lagged panel model revealed stability in child screen time and effortful control between the ages of 3.5 and 4.5. Child screen time at age 3.5 significantly contributed to decreased effortful control scores at the age of 4.5, whereas effortful control at age 3.5 did not contribute to screen time at age 4.5. Our results partially confirmed our hypothesis and indicated that higher levels of screen time intake were detrimental to the development of effortful control. These results suggest that screen media use, an exceedingly frequent activity, may play an enduring role in development by shaping young children’s temperaments.

The Dark Figure of Delinquency:New Evidence and Its Underlying Psychopathology

Although research on the dark figure of delinquency has produced valuable quantitative estimates of its size, prior research is mechanistic and atheoretical about the conceptual underpinnings of the crimes that go undetected by the juvenile justice system. Drawing on data from 253 adjudicated youth in residential placements in the Midwestern United States, the current study found that youth self-reported over 25 delinquent offenses for every one police contact. The dark figure of delinquency has a wide distribution with some youth reporting upwards of 290 delinquent offenses per police contact or arrest. Youth who exhibited more psychopathic features, who displayed temperamental profiles characterized by low effortful control and high negative emotionality, males, and those who were older had larger dark figures of delinquency. Findings provide support for general criminological theories that invoke psychopathy or temperament as important individual-level drivers of delinquent conduct, much of which never results in juvenile justice system intervention and thus never achieves legal resolution.

Sibling relationships and school entry psychosocial functioning: Dual risk or differential susceptibility?

The aim of the present study was to test whether relations between temperament, sibling relationship quality, and problem behavior and social competence of children at school entry are in line with either of two competing models, dual risk and differential susceptibility. Our sample consisted of 977 Dutch mothers (Mean age 35.7 years) reporting about a target child at school entry. Regarding target children, mean age was 4.7 years, 48.1% were boys and 52.1% were older than their sibling. Mean age difference between siblings was 2.7 years. Using a cross-sectional design, mothers filled out online questionnaires concerning sibling relationship quality, temperament, problem behavior, and social competence of the target child. Path analysis was used to examine whether temperament moderated the link between sibling relationship quality and child psychosocial functioning. In line with differential susceptibility, results from moderation analyses indicate that among children low in effortful control (EC), sibling conflict was more strongly positively associated with internalizing and externalizing problems than among children high in EC, but sibling warmth also was more strongly positively related to social competence in children low in EC than in children high in EC. However, follow-up Region of Significance analyses shows that our findings are only consistent with weak differential susceptibility. No significant moderation effects were found for surgency or negative affect. Our findings suggest that low effortful control is a susceptibility marker concerning the link between sibling relationship quality and child functioning. Limitations, implications, and future directions are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The role of Effortful Control in Substance Use Disorders

Background and aim: Temperament and personality traits are important factors underlying the vulnerability for both initiation and continuation of addictive behaviors. In SUDs there is a high comorbidity with mood and anxiety disorders and personality disorders. As there is a growing interest in the possible transdiagnostic role of Effortful Control in both SUDs as in their comorbid disorders the current study therefore investigates the influence of reactive (Behavioral Inhibition System and Behavioral Activation System, BIS/BAS) and regulative (Effortful Control, EC) temperament and their interaction in relation to clinical symptomatology and PDs in adult inpatients with SUD. Methods: The EC, BIS/BAS, SCL-90-R and ADP-IV questionnaires were administered to 841 patients (age between 17 y and 71 y) with a SUD admitted at the treatment unit for addiction of a psychiatric hospital. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both, clinical symptomatology and PDs were related to low levels of effortful control (EC). Furthermore, cluster C PDs were related to high levels of BIS and low levels of EC; whereas cluster B PDs were related to low levels of EC and high levels of BAS for the narcissistic and histrionic PD. An interaction effect (BIS*EC) was found for the Schizotypal PD, all other interactions (BIS*EC and BAS*EC) were not significant. Discussion: We found that low EC is involved in all clinical symptomatology and PDs in a sample of inpatients with SUDs. Therapeutic interventions aiming at strengthening effortful control can possibly result in better treatment outcomes for both the addiction as the comorbid psychopathologyDisclosureNo significant relationships.

The role of Effortful Control in Pychopathology Amongst Older Psychiatric Patients

Background and aim: Based upon a person-centred approach, there is a growing interest in neurobiological transdiagnostic factors, such as reactive temperament (Behavioral Inhibition (BIS) and Behavioral Activation Systems (BAS)) and regulatory processes (Effortful Control (EC)). Three temperament-based personality types (Resilient, Undercontrolled and Overcontrolled type (RUO)) have been replicated in adolescents and younger adults with several clinical problems; with the resilient type (highest scores on EC) consistently showing less psychological symptoms. However, these RUO types have not been studied yet in older adults with mental disorders. Therefore, the current study investigates (1) whether these RUO types can be replicated based on the aforementioned reactive and regulative temperamental factors in older inpatients and (2) whether a higher EC is related to the presence of less psychopathology. Methods: The EC, BIS/BAS, SCL-90-R and ADP-IV questionnaires were administered to 96 older patients (<= 60 years) admitted to a psychiatric hospital. Results: Cluster analysis resulted in a solution of three atypical types: a Resilient type (low BIS, mean BAS, high EC), a Dysregulated type (high BIS, high BAS, low EC) and an “Apathic” type (mean BIS, low BAS, mean EC). Comparison of means revealed that the Resilient type has the highest scores on EC and shows less clinical symptoms and maladaptive personality traits. Discussion: Of the 3 RUO types, only the Resilient type was fully replicated in older psychiatric patients. Strengthening EC might be useful as an additional therapy in order to reduce clinical symptoms, possibly leading to a better treatment outcome.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Examining effortful control as a moderator in the association of negative parenting and aggression among Hong Kong Chinese preschoolers

ABSTRACT Research Findings: This study examined whether physical coercion and psychological control by mothers and fathers can influence preschoolers’ use of physical and relational aggression, and whether the relations are moderated by children’s effortful control in a Hong Kong Chinese sample. Data were collected from a sample of 168 children (88 girls; M = 60.97 months, SD = 5.51 months) and their parents twice, six months apart. At Time 1, mothers and fathers reported on their spouse’s, as well as their own use of physical coercion and psychological control, and a puzzle box task was administered to assess child effortful control. At Time 2, mothers, fathers, and teachers completed questionnaires to assess child physical and relational aggression. Results show that mothers’ physical coercion was associated with child physical and relational aggression. In contrast, fathers’ physical coercion was significantly related to child physical aggression but its relation with child relational aggression was not statistically significant, and both these two associations were moderated by effortful control. Practice or Policy: These results suggest that general intervention efforts are needed to prevent aggression among children of physically coercive parents, and particularly among children with low effortful control and physically coercive fathers.

Is the distinction between tonic and phasic irritability meaningful in 3-year-old children?

Irritability encompasses both normative misbehavior in early childhood and clinically significant problems across development. Recent studies have distinguished between tonic (i.e., persistently angry or grumpy mood) and phasic (i.e., temper tantrums or outbursts) forms of irritability and shown that they have different implications for psychopathology and functioning. However, data on this distinction in young (i.e., preschool aged) children are nonexistent. We utilized data from a longitudinal study of a community sample of 462 3-year-olds followed to age 15. We conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using items from a diagnostic interview and several parent-report inventories and examined concurrent and prospective associations with clinically relevant variables. The CFA identified dimensions consistent with tonic and phasic irritability. Tonic irritability was independently associated with concurrent parent-reported temperamental negative affectivity and surgency, and depressive and oppositional defiant (ODD) disorders, and predicted higher rates of disruptive behavior disorders (DBD) and suicidal behavior in later childhood and adolescence. Phasic irritability was independently associated with concurrent laboratory observations of child impulsivity, parent-reported temperamental negative affectivity, surgency, and low effortful control, maladaptive parenting, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and ODD, but it did not predict later psychopathology. Tonic and phasic irritability are separable in 3-year-old children, but their correlates and outcomes are not as distinct as in older youth. This may reflect the greater difficulty characterizing normative and pathological irritability in the preschool period.

Temperament Dimensions and Awakening Cortisol Levels in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

ObjectiveTo investigate whether temperament dimensions, Effortful Control (EC), Surgency-Extraversion (SE), and Negative Affectivity (NA), are associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and how they relate to awakening cortisol levels, as a proxy measure of peripheral arousal.MethodsParent-rated temperament and saliva samples were collected from 55 children with ADHD and 65 age-matched controls.ResultsCompared to controls, youths with ADHD showed lower EC, higher NA, and lower awakening cortisol levels but did not differ in SE. Similar findings emerged in dimensional analyses linking temperament traits to inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms. The results remained unchanged when controlling for the presence of co-occurring opposition-defiance and anxiety traits, as well as medication status. Temperament dimensions were not associated with cortisol levels.ConclusionsPoor temperamental emotional and cognitive self-regulation showed significant associations with ADHD but did not appear to be linked to the under-arousal typically seen in ADHD.

Youth Temperament Moderates Associations Between Parental Involvement and Pediatric Type 1 Diabetes Treatment Outcome.

Both youth self-regulation and quality of parental involvement have been associated with blood glucose levels (HbA1c) of youth with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). However, it is unclear whether and how youth and parental factors interact in their relation to youth HbA1c. The differential susceptibility hypothesis proposes that youth with high negative affectivity (NA) and low effortful control (EC) may be more susceptible to the deleterious impact of lower quality parenting behaviors but also reap greater benefit from higher quality parenting behaviors. This study investigated whether youth temperament would moderate the link between diabetes-specific parental assistance (e.g., checking blood sugar) or support (e.g., encouraging, praising) and HbA1c among youth with T1DM. Primary caregivers of youth with T1DM (N = 101; M age = 12.02, SD = 2.43) completed surveys on diabetes-specific parental involvement and youth temperament. Medical information (i.e., HbA1c) was obtained from chart review. Multiple regression analyses indicated that youth NA and EC significantly interacted with parental assistance, but not support. Specifically, higher parental assistance was associated with higher HbA1c among youth with high NA or high EC. High assistance was only linked to lower HbA1c for youth with low NA. Results suggest that optimal levels of parental involvement related to better T1DM outcomes depend on youth's NA or EC. Consistent with the goodness-of-fit framework, when parenting approaches match youth's temperament, youth with T1DM may be better able to maintain lower HbA1c. Family interventions for pediatric T1DM management may take into consideration youth temperament.

Information on Covid-19 and Effortful Control Level: Increasing or Decreasing Anxiety?

Anxiety has increased with more information about the COVID-19 outbreak. The COVID-19 information can make people more aware and care about this pandemic. However, it also can make people feel panic and anxious. Emotional induction in the information is referring to how the emotion carried by the information can affect early adult’s anxiety, but the differences in effortful control level that each person has also define the level of anxiety someone experiences. The anxiety level related to effortful control is one dimension of temperament. This study is conducted in concern of the effect of emotional induction in COVID-19 information towards anxiety in high and low effortful control groups. This study used a quantitative method with quasi-experimental research. This study involves 218 early adults in an age range of 20-40 years old. This study used pictures from content information about COVID-19, Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and Effortful Control Questionnaire (ECQ) as the measuring tools. The results of the significance test show p <0.005. This means that there is an effect of emotional induction on anxiety at both high and low effortful control levels. This study shows that emotional induction in the form of COVID-19 information reduces anxiety in the respondent group with a high level of effortful control, but increases anxiety in the respondent group with a low level of effortful control. The effect of COVID-19 information on anxiety based on effortful control in the late adult (over 65 years old) group, in this study cannot be explained.

Associations between Turkish incarcerated mothers’ sensitivity and their co-residing children’s attachment: The moderating role of children’s temperament

ABSTRACT This study investigated the associations between incarcerated mothers’ sensitivity and their co-residing children’s attachment security. Furthermore, the moderating role of children’s temperament on the associations between maternal sensitivity and children’s attachment security was examined. The study sample consisted of 84 incarcerated mothers (Mage = 29.9, SD = 5.6) and their 12- to 43-month-old (M = 25.3, SD = 8.3) children who co-resided with them in prison facilities. Maternal sensitivity and child’s attachment were assessed by observation of mother-child interaction using the Maternal Sensitivity Scale and the Turkish Toddler Attachment Sort-60, respectively. Mothers reported their children’s temperamental features (i.e. negative emotionality and effortful control) using the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire. Results showed that maternal sensitivity was related positively to children’s secure attachment and negatively to children’s disorganized attachment. Furthermore, children’s negative emotionality and effortful control moderated the associations between maternal sensitivity and children’s attachment. Specifically, maternal sensitivity negatively predicted children’s avoidant attachment only for children with low negative emotionality and with high effortful control. Additionally, maternal sensitivity negatively predicted children’s anxious attachment only for children with low effortful control. Results are discussed in terms of sample-specific experiences, contextual factors, and the differential susceptibility hypothesis.

The Association between Exposure to Nature and Children’s Happiness: The Diathesis-Stress or Differential Susceptibility Models?

Research has demonstrated that both family environments and individual characteristics are associated with children’s happiness. However, relatively less research has explored whether and how natural environments are associated with children’s happiness. The current study examines whether the association between exposure to nature and children’s happiness is moderated by temperament (negative affectivity and effortful control), whether there is a gender difference in the moderating mechanisms, and whether the detected moderation supports the diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility models. Four hundred and ten children and one parent of each child participated in our study. We found that boys’ effortful control, not negative affectivity, moderated the association between exposure to nature and happiness. Furthermore, the results support the differential susceptibility model with boys’ low effortful control as a vulnerability factor. Specifically, for boys with lower effortful control, a lower exposure to nature was associated with lower happiness, and a higher exposure to nature was associated with higher happiness than in boys with higher effortful control. However, girls’ negative affectivity and effortful control did not moderate the association between exposure to nature and happiness. These findings suggest that the association between natural environments and children’s positive developmental outcomes varies with their effortful control and gender.

Neighborhood disadvantage and longitudinal brain-predicted-age trajectory during adolescence

Neighborhood disadvantage has consistently been linked to alterations in brain structure; however, positive environmental (e.g., positive parenting) and psychological factors (e.g., temperament) may buffer these effects. We aimed to investigate associations between neighborhood disadvantage and deviations from typical neurodevelopmental trajectories during adolescence, and examine the moderating role of positive parenting and temperamental effortful control (EC). Using a large dataset (n = 1313), a normative model of brain morphology was established, which was then used to predict the age of youth from a longitudinal dataset (n = 166, three time-points at age 12, 16, and 19). Using linear mixed models, we investigated whether trajectories of the difference between brain-predicted-age and chronological age (brainAGE) were associated with neighborhood disadvantage, and whether positive parenting (positive behavior during a problem-solving task) and EC moderated these associations. We found that neighborhood disadvantage was associated with positive brainAGE during early adolescence and a deceleration (decreasing brainAGE) thereafter. EC moderated this association such that in disadvantaged adolescents, low EC was associated with delayed development (negative brainAGE) during late adolescence. Findings provide evidence for complex associations between environmental and psychological factors, and brain maturation. They suggest that neighborhood disadvantage may have long-term effects on neurodevelopment during adolescence, but high EC could buffer these effects.

Why do parents use screen media with toddlers? The role of child temperament and parenting stress in early screen use

Considering child characteristics may be an important piece to understanding parental decision-making for children’s screen use. The current cross-sectional study examined the mediating role of maternal parenting stress in the relation of child temperament to young children’s screen use. Recognizing the multidimensional aspects of temperament, three mediated pathways for three temperament domains (i.e., negative affectivity, surgency, and effortful control) were tested. Mothers of toddlers, 18–36 months (N = 296), completed an online survey, reporting on child temperament, total parenting stress, and child screen use. The results showed that mother-child dynamics were related to toddlers’ screen use. Toddlers’ negative affectivity and effortful control were each associated with toddlers’ screen use through maternal parenting stress. Higher negative affectivity was associated with higher maternal parenting stress, which in turn, was related to greater screen use in toddlers. Toddlers’ lower effortful control was related to higher maternal parenting stress, which in turn, was associated with greater screen use. Toddlers’ surgency was not related to either maternal parenting stress or toddlers’ screen use. The findings from this study contribute to an understanding of media-related parenting in toddlerhood and may help with the development of strategies for supporting healthy media habits in families with young children.

Maternal depressive symptoms and language development: The moderating role of child temperament.

The current study examined the interaction between maternal depressive symptoms and child temperament in predicting subsequent child language skills. Participants were 252 mother-child dyads recruited from the All Our Families longitudinal cohort, a primarily middle-class sample (62.9% completed postsecondary education) from Alberta, Canada (90.5% White, 6% Asian, 3.5% other). Maternal depressive symptoms at age 3, controlling for prenatal depressive symptoms, did not evidence a direct effect on child language skills at age 5 (49.6% males; mean [M] = 5.12 years old, standard deviation [SD] = .11). However, both child surgency and effortful control interacted with maternal depression at age 3 to predict later language skills. Low effortful control was a risk factor for poorer language abilities in contexts of high maternal depressive symptoms. High child surgency emerged as a differential susceptibility marker, predicting poorer language skills in contexts of high maternal depressive symptoms but better language skills in contexts of low depressive symptoms. Negative affect did not interact with maternal depressive symptoms in predicting language skills. These findings highlight the complex interaction between maternal and child characteristics in predicting language development during a developmental period in which language skills are a prime indicator of school readiness and a predictor of future academic achievement and socioemotional adjustment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Problematic Pornography Use in Japan: A Preliminary Study Among University Students.

BackgroundProblematic pornography use is considered an addictive behavior, which is an important clinical issue. Despite considerable research interest in problematic pornography use worldwide, to the best of our knowledge, there are no extant studies on the subject in Japan. Therefore, despite the fact that many people in Japan use pornography, the difference between problematic and non-problematic users among Japanese people is not known.ObjectiveThis study aimed to identify the characteristics of problematic pornography use among Japanese students, to the best of our knowledge. Specifically, we examined general psychopathological symptoms, sexual compulsivity, depression, anxiety, and low effortful control.MethodsThe participants were 150 college students aged 20–26 years (mean age = 21.5, SD = 1.21, males: n = 86, females: n = 64) at a university in midland Japan. An online questionnaire was administered that included items on pornography usage patterns, impaired control of pornography use, sexual compulsivity, depression, anxiety, and effortful control.ResultsMost men (97%) and approximately one-third of women (35.9%) used pornography at least once in the past month. Some users reported significant daily-life problems due to difficulty in controlling pornography use (5.7%). Participants with impaired control of pornography use had higher depression, anxiety, and sexual compulsivity, and lower effortful control than pornography users without impaired control.ConclusionSome Japanese students reported significant daily-life problems due to impaired control of pornography use. The characteristics of individuals with impaired control are consistent with previous studies. The results of this study suggest that individuals with impaired control may have poor mental health, and that there is need for further research and development of treatment systems to manage this issue in Japan. Further research exploring a more varied sample in Japan is required to effectively examine problematic pornography use.

Effortful control moderates relationships between worry and symptoms of depression and anxious arousal.

Findings are inconsistent regarding the relationship between worry and anxious arousal (AA). Effortful control (EC) capacity may explain these inconsistent findings, such that only high worriers with higher EC are able to suppress autonomic arousal through worrying. The current study investigated these main and interactive effects of worry and EC on AA as well as depression. Participants (N=1210, 779 females) were recruited from Amazon's Mechanical Turk website and completed self-report measures assessing worry, EC, AA, depression, and negative affect intensity. Regression models revealed that EC moderated the relationship between worry and AA, with individuals lower in EC demonstrating a stronger positive relationship between worry and AA. EC also moderated the relationship between worry and depression, with individuals lower in EC demonstrating a stronger positive relationship between worry and depression. Results remained the same when controlling for age, gender, and negative affect intensity. Results support the idea that low EC may help to explain a range of comorbid psychiatric symptoms. Individuals low in effortful control demonstrate a stronger association between worry and anxious arousal, as well as between worry and depression Those low in effortful control may be especially vulnerable to comorbid worry and depression High worriers who are high in effortful control may be motivated to continue worrying due to their ability to reduce anxious arousal during worry.