Low Effective Pressure Research Articles

Effects of ice deformation on Röthlisberger channels and implications for transitions in subglacial hydrology

ABSTRACTAlong the base of glaciers and ice sheets, the sliding of ice over till depends critically on water drainage. In locations where drainage occurs through Röthlisberger channels, the effective pressure along the base of the ice increases and can lead to a strengthening of the bed, which reduces glacier sliding. The formation of Röthlisberger channels depends on two competing effects: (1) melting from turbulent dissipation opens the channel walls and (2) creep flow driven by the weight of the overlying ice closes the channels radially inward. Variation in downstream ice velocity along the channel axis, referred to as an antiplane shear strain rate, decreases the effective viscosity. The softening of the ice increases creep closure velocities. In this way, even a modest addition of antiplane shear can double the size of the Röthlisberger channels for a fixed water pressure or allow channels of a fixed radius to operate at lower effective pressure, potentially decreasing the strength of the surrounding bed. Furthermore, we show that Röthlisberger channels can be deformed away from a circular cross section under applied antiplane shear. These results can have broad impacts on sliding velocities and potentially affect the total ice flux out of glaciers and ice streams.

The effect of fracture density and stress state on the static and dynamic bulk moduli of Westerly granite

AbstractElastic properties are key parameters during the deformation of rocks. They can be measured statically or dynamically, but the two measurements are often different. In this study, the static and dynamic bulk moduli (Kstatic and Kdynamic) were measured at varying effective stress for dry and fluid‐saturated Westerly granite with controlled fracture densities under isotropic and differential stress states. Isotropic fracturing of different densities was induced in samples by thermal treatment to 250, 450, 650, and 850°C. Results show that fluid saturation does not greatly affect static moduli but increases dynamic moduli. Under isotropic loading, high fracture density and/or low effective pressure results in a low Kstatic/Kdynamic ratio. For dry conditions Kstatic/Kdynamic approaches 1 at low fracture densities when the effective pressure is high, consistent with previous studies. Stress‐induced anisotropy exists under differential stress state that greatly affects Kstatic compared to Kdynamic. As a result, the Kstatic/Kdynamic ratio is higher than that for the isotropic stress state and approaches 1 with increasing axial loading. The effect of stress‐induced anisotropy increases with increasing fracture density. A key omission in previous studies comparing static and dynamic properties is that anisotropy has not been considered. The standard methods for measuring static elastic properties, such as Poisson's ratio, Young's and shear modulus, involve subjecting the sample to a differential stress state that promotes anisotropy. Our results show that stress‐induced anisotropy resulting from differential stress state is a major contributor to the difference between static and dynamic elasticity and is dominant with high fracture density.

Effect of fluids and frequencies on Poisson’s ratio of sandstone samples

Poisson’s ratio [Formula: see text] is an important parameter when interpreting measured geophysical and seismic data. For an isotropic medium, it directly relates to the ratio of P- and S-wave velocities. We have measured [Formula: see text] as a function of pressure and frequency in fluid-saturated sandstones. The method of measuring [Formula: see text] was first tested as a function of pressure and frequency using standard samples. The phase shift [Formula: see text] between radial and axial strains was also measured. For all standard samples, such as the linear viscoelastic Plexiglas, the data indicated that [Formula: see text] correlated with [Formula: see text] and related to a dissipation on [Formula: see text]. Then, [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] were measured as a function of pressure and frequency for two dry and fluid-saturated Fontainebleau sandstone samples. Under dry conditions, no frequency dependence and very small pressure dependence were observed. Unusual behaviors were observed under fluid-saturated conditions. In particular, [Formula: see text] of one sample indicated a frequency-dependent bell-shaped dispersion under water and glycerin saturation that correlated with peaks in [Formula: see text]. Plotting the measurements as a function of apparent frequency (i.e., normalizing by the fluid viscosity) indicated a good fit between the water- and glycerin-saturated measurements. The bell-shaped dispersion in [Formula: see text] that was observed for one particular sandstone held for all effective pressures. These variations fully correlated with the peaks of [Formula: see text] observed. Our results can be interpreted using fluid flow and effective medium theories in the case of a porous microcracked rock. Drained/undrained and relaxed/unrelaxed transitions have frequency and magnitude of variations that are consistent with the measurements. The rock sample microcrack density strongly affects this frequency dependence. The inferred [Formula: see text] ratio at low effective pressures also indicates a large frequency-dependent bell-shaped dispersion. The parameter [Formula: see text] is a clear indicator of the frequency-dependent dissipation of [Formula: see text] and relates to the attenuation of P- and S-waves.

Combining GPS and repeating earthquakes for a high resolution analysis of subduction zone coupling

Increasingly complex spatiotemporal patterns of subduction zone coupling are being revealed by geodetic and seismic observations. Understanding the mechanisms which control it is useful for improving seismic hazard assessments. GPS and characteristically repeating earthquakes (CREs) are complementary datasets for monitoring aseismic slip. Here, both of them are combined to estimate the rate and distribution of creep on the northeast Japan subduction zone between 21 March 1996 and 24 September 2003. We find that the majority of the upper part at 0–30km depth remains locked. There are three regions creeping at 7–8cm/yr distributed along-strike at 40–70km depth. We observe that these creeping regions occur in areas of low effective pressure and reduced porosity, which are inferred from Vp and Vs velocities. Moreover, an area of high clay content and high effective pressure coincides with the rupture area of the Tohoku-oki earthquake. We discuss these results in the context of potential mechanisms governing creep in northeast Japan. Our results highlight the benefits of combining GPS and CREs for advancing our understanding of the seismic cycle in subduction zones.

Temporal variations in the flow of a large Antarctic ice stream controlled by tidally induced changes in the subglacial water system

Abstract. Observations show that the flow of Rutford Ice Stream (RIS) is strongly modulated by the ocean tides, with the strongest tidal response at the 14.77-day tidal period (Msf). This is striking because this period is absent in the tidal forcing. A number of mechanisms have been proposed to account for this effect, yet previous modelling studies have struggled to match the observed large amplitude and decay length scale. We use a nonlinear 3-D viscoelastic full-Stokes model of ice-stream flow to investigate this open issue. We find that the long period Msf modulation of ice-stream velocity observed in data cannot be reproduced quantitatively without including a coupling between basal sliding and tidally induced subglacial water pressure variations, transmitted through a highly conductive drainage system at low effective pressure. Furthermore, the basal sliding law requires a water pressure exponent that is strongly nonlinear with q = 10 and a nonlinear basal shear exponent of m = 3. Coupled model results show that sub-ice shelf tides result in a ∼12 % increase in mean horizontal velocity of the adjoining ice stream. Observations of tidally induced variations in flow of ice streams provide stronger constraints on basal sliding processes than provided by any other set of measurements.

Visco‐poroelastic damage model for brittle‐ductile failure of porous rocks

AbstractThe coupling between damage accumulation, dilation, and compaction during loading of sandstones is responsible for different structural features such as localized deformation bands and homogeneous inelastic deformation. We distinguish and quantify the role of each deformation mechanism using new mathematical model and its numerical implementation. Formulation includes three different deformation regimes: (I) quasi‐elastic deformation characterized by material strengthening and compaction; (II) cataclastic flow characterized by damage increase and compaction; and (III) brittle failure characterized by damage increase, dilation, and shear localization. Using a three‐dimensional numerical model, we simulate the deformation behavior of cylindrical porous Berea sandstone samples under different confining pressures. The obtained stress, strain, porosity changes and macroscopic deformation features well reproduce the laboratory results. The model predicts different rock behavior as a function of confining pressures. The quasi‐elastic and brittle regimes associated with formation of shear and/or dilatant bands occur at low effective pressures. The model also successfully reproduces cataclastic flow and homogeneous compaction under high pressures. Complex behavior with overlap of common features of all regimes is simulated under intermediate pressures, resulting with localized compaction or shear enhanced compaction bands. Numerical results elucidate three steps in the formation of compaction bands: (1) dilation and subsequent shear localization, (2) formation of shear enhanced compaction band, and (3) formation of pure compaction band.

Permeability and thermal cracking at pressure in Sioux Quartzite

Abstract We heated specimens of Sioux Quartzite to 683, 783 and 830 K at confining pressures ( P c ) of 0.1, 100 and 200 MPa. Following the heat treatments, we measured the permeability under confining pressures that varied from 170 MPa to 60 MPa, with pore-fluid pressures of 10, 16 or 22 MPa, resulting in tests having effective pressures ranging from 36 to 160 MPa. When measured under those effective pressures, the permeability of samples with microstructures formed by cracking at 683–830 K and atmospheric pressure increased by a factor of 3–4. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) shows that thermal cracking increases the number of long, narrow cracks, qualitatively explaining the increased sensitivity of permeability to low effective pressure. Fracture mechanics models suggest that confining pressures lower the stress intensity factors to well below the critical value for crack propagation, and the absence of many long cracks is consistent with that prediction. At P c =200 MPa, thermal cracking during the heat treatment is suppressed. Although the heating experiments were performed on nominally dry samples, in samples heated at the highest temperatures SEM revealed microstructural features that are similar to those seen in crack healing experiments.

Mechanisms of time‐dependent deformation in porous limestone

AbstractWe performed triaxial deformation experiments on a water‐saturated porous limestone under constant strain rate and constant stress (creep) conditions. The tests were conducted at room temperature and at low effective pressures Peff=10 and Peff=20 MPa, in a regime where the rock is nominally brittle when tested at a constant strain rate of 10−5 s−1. Under these conditions and at constant stress, the phenomenon of brittle creep occurs. At Peff=10 MPa, brittle creep follows similar trends as those observed in other rock types (e.g., sandstones and granites): only small strains are accumulated before failure, and damage accumulation with increasing strain (as monitored by P wave speeds measurements during the tests) is not strongly dependent on the applied stresses. At Peff=20 MPa, brittle creep is also macroscopically observed, but when the creep strain rate is lower than ≈10−7 s−1, we observe that (1) much larger strains are accumulated, (2) less damage is accumulated with increasing strain, and (3) the deformation tends to be more compactant. These observations can be understood by considering that another deformation mechanism, different from crack growth, is active at low strain rates. We explore this possibility by constructing a deformation mechanism map that includes both subcritical crack growth and pressure solution creep processes; the increasing contribution of pressure solution creep at low strain rates is consistent with our observations.

The state of stresses of the lithosphere in Japan before the catastrophic Tohoku earthquake of 11 March 2011

The article presents results of tectonophysical methods applied to reconstruct tectonic stress field of the north-western flank of the Pacific Ocean seismic focal zone in the region wherein the 2011 Tohoku earthquake was prepared. The reconstructions are based on earthquake foci data for the time period before the catastrophic seismic event. The field of stresses, wherein the Tohoku earthquake focus was formed, had a high gradient along the dip of the seismic focal zone. It is revealed that the focus developed in the junction area of the crust segments with high and low levels of effective pressure. A wide area of lower effective pressure was located at depths close to 30 km, and it was the most susceptible to brittle fracture. In our opinion, the area impacted by the Tohoku earthquake is large due to a large length of the crustal segments with the high gradient of stresses, which are located along the eastern part of the crust of the Honshu Island. The stress reconstruction also shows that the axis of the Japan oceanic trough divides the seismic focal zone into areas of horizontal compression (westward) and horizontal extension (eastwards). According to our calculations, lateral compression is the highest at the crustal depths up to 20 km westward of the trough’s axis, where maximum lateral compression axes are oriented orthogonally to the troug h’s strike. Eastward of the trough’s axis, minimum horizontal compression axes are oriented orthogonally to the trough’s strike. At the crossing point of the Japan trough, a sharp changing of stress is by a factor of 5 to 8 of internal cohesion of rocks, τf. This sharp changing of stress is lower for the Izu-Bonin trough and varies from 3 to 5 τf.

Direct and indirect laboratory measurements of poroelastic properties of two consolidated sandstones

Experimental measurements to derive the drained bulk C and the solid bulk Csu compressibility, the poroelastic Biot coefficient α, Skempton coefficient B as well as porosity ϕ were performed under drained, undrained and unjacketed pore pressure conditions. The experiments were conducted for two different kinds of sandstones, Bentheimer and Flechtinger. During all experiments, the confining hydrostatic pressure was continuously increased up to 85MPa. To measure the undrained pore pressure response within the interior of the sample, a novel fibre optic sensors technique was applied. Subsequently, we compared the direct measurement of αdir, Bdir and ϕdir to indirect calculated values using C and Csu. For low effective pressure, it showed that all parameters display a non-linear decrease with increasing effective pressure. At high effective pressure the decrease of all poroelastic coefficients is almost linear with increasing effective pressure. In accordance with Terzaghi's effective stress concept, the comparison between direct and indirect methods showed a good to excellent agreement for all calculated parameters. Differences between the direct and indirect methods were used to quantify drained and unjacketed pore compressibilities, as well as jacket effects during the experiment.

Strength and deformation characteristics of a locked sand at low effective stresses

This paper describes the results of triaxial compression tests carried out at effective cell pressures ranging from 12.5 to 100 kPa to investigate the influence of fabric structure on the yield and failure of intact Reigate silver sand. In some of the tests, a digital image-based technique was used to determine the instant of onset of strain localisation, and the distribution of strain localisations within the specimen as overall deformation progressed. Comparative tests on intact and reconstituted specimens showed that fabric structure in the intact material allows the mobilisation of stress ratios close to peak before the onset of dilation, and increases the shear modulus at a given effective cell pressure and strain. Localisation was found to start at or after the onset of dilation, with a tendency to delay at increasing effective cell pressure. More localised deformation was observed at low effective cell pressures. Consistency between the critical state strengths of intact and reconstituted specimens is demonstrated, provided that the effect of shear band geometry is taken into account in stress analysis.

Type of mask may impact on continuous positive airway pressure adherence in apneic patients.

RationaleIn obstructive sleep apnea patients (OSA), continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) adherence is crucial to improve symptoms and cardiometabolic outcomes. The choice of mask may influence CPAP adherence but this issue has never been addressed properly.ObjectiveTo evaluate the impact of nasal pillows, nasal and oronasal masks on CPAP adherence in a cohort of OSA.MethodsNewly CPAP treated OSA participating in “Observatoire Sommeil de la Fédération de Pneumologie”, a French national prospective cohort, were included between March 2009 and December 2011. Anthropometric data, medical history, OSA severity, sleepiness, depressive status, treatment modalities (auto-CPAP versus fixed pressure, pressure level, interface type, use of humidifiers) and CPAP-related side effects were included in multivariate analysis to determine independent variables associated with CPAP adherence.Results2311 OSA (age = 57(12) years, apnea+hypopnea index = 41(21)/h, 29% female) were included. Nasal masks, oronasal masks and nasal pillows were used by 62.4, 26.2 and 11.4% of the patients, respectively. In univariate analysis, oronasal masks and nasal pillows were associated with higher risk of CPAP non-adherence. CPAP non-adherence was also associated with younger age, female gender, mild OSA, gastroesophageal reflux, depression status, low effective pressure and CPAP-related side effects. In multivariate analysis, CPAP non-adherence was associated with the use of oronasal masks (OR = 2.0; 95%CI = 1.6; 2.5), depression, low effective pressure, and side effects.ConclusionAs oronasal masks negatively impact on CPAP adherence, a nasal mask should be preferred as the first option. Patients on oronasal masks should be carefully followed.

The Effects of Temperature and Pressure on the Porosity Evolution of Flechtinger Sandstone

A porosity change influences the transport properties and the elastic moduli of rock while circulating water in a geothermal reservoir. The static and dynamic elastic moduli can be derived from the slope of stress–strain curves and velocity measurements, respectively. Consequently, the acoustic velocities were measured while performing hydrostatic drained tests. The effect of temperature on static and dynamic elastic moduli and porosity variations of Flechtinger sandstone was investigated in a wide range of confining pressure from 2 to 55 MPa. The experiments were carried out in a conventional triaxial system whereas the pore pressure remained constant, confining pressure was cycled, and temperature was increased step wise (25, 60, 90, 120, and 140 °C). The porosity variation was calculated by employing two different theories: poroelasticity and crack closure. The porosity variation and crack porosity were determined by the first derivative of stress–strain curves and the integral of the second derivative of stress–strain curves, respectively. The crack porosity analysis confirms the creation of new cracks at high temperatures. The porosity variation was increasing with an increase in temperature at low effective pressures and was decreasing with a rise in temperature at high effective pressures. Both compressional and shear wave velocities were increasing with increasing pressure due to progressive crack closure. Furthermore, the thermomechanical behavior of Flechtinger sandstone was characterized by an inversion effect where the sign of the temperature derivative of the drained bulk modulus changes.

4D seismic modeling and CO2 pressure-saturation inversion at the Weyburn Field, Saskatchewan

We present results of our 4D (time-lapse) seismic data processing, impedance inversion, CO2 pressure-saturation inversion, and uncertainty analysis for the Weyburn Field, Saskatchewan. Such information can be vitally important for identifying CO2 leaks outside the reservoir, tracking pressure fronts and CO2 saturation levels over time, and improving the accuracy of flow simulations and history matching to production data. After co-processing multiple vintages of prestack and post-stack seismic data, we calculated time-lapse impedance changes and used them to invert for changes in pore pressure and CO2 saturation occurring within the Weyburn reservoir over a six-year period. We used a novel inversion approach whose results are consistent with both the petrophysical model and Weyburn reservoir flow simulations. Pore pressure and CO2 saturation increases of up to 8–9MPa and 90–100mole%, respectively, were found near CO2 injection wells at the Midale reservoir level, with corresponding uncertainties of 4.5MPa and 30–35mole% CO2. For future CO2 monitoring, we recommend: (1) acquiring high-fidelity, long-offset seismic data for improved P- and S-impedance inversion, (2) measuring ultrasonic core velocities at low effective pressures where seismic data are most sensitive, and (3) establishing uncertainties in input data used for pressure-saturation inversion and uncertainty analysis.

A new velocity-pressure-compaction model for uncemented sediments

SUMMARY Knowledge of the pressure dependence of rock properties is useful for a wide range of earth science problems, especially related to pore pressure changes caused by fluid injection or withdrawal, as often occurs in groundwater, hydrocarbon and CO2 sequestration reservoirs. A long-standing problem is that theoretical models of velocity-pressure response often do not match laboratory measurements, and alternately, empirical regressions fit to such data do not extrapolate accurately to wider pressure ranges since they have little or no physical basis. Accurate determination of the dry rock frame properties at low effective pressure is a key aspect of the problem, particularly when ultrasonic laboratory measurements are not available in this pressure range. We present a new model to describe the pressure sensitivity of the bulk and shear moduli for uncemented sedimentary rocks. Our model incorporates effects of sedimentary compaction and critical porosity, including a relationship to account for porosityanddensitychangewithpressure.Themodelistestedonlaboratorymeasurementsfor various rock samples and fits well over a wide range of pressures. The new velocity‐pressure model should be useful for improved prediction and interpretation of pressure-dependent rock properties and seismic data.

Simulating protein unfolding under pressure with a coarse-grained model

We describe and test a coarse-grained molecular model for the simulation of the effects of pressure on the folding/unfolding transition of proteins. The model is a structure-based one, which takes into account the desolvation barrier for the formation of the native contacts. The pressure is taken into account in a qualitative, mean field approach, acting on the parameters describing the native stabilizing interactions. The model has been tested by simulating the thermodynamic and structural behavior of protein GB1 with a parallel tempering Monte Carlo algorithm. At low effective pressures, the model reproduces the standard two-state thermal transition between the native and denatured states. However, at large pressures a new state appears. Its structural characteristics have been analyzed, showing that it corresponds to a swollen version of the native structure. This swollen state is at equilibrium with the native state at low temperatures, but gradually transforms into the thermally denatured state as temperature is increased. Therefore, our model predicts a downhill transition between the swollen and the denatured states. The analysis of the model permits us to obtain a phase diagram for the pressure-temperature behavior of the simulated system, which is compatible with the known elliptical shape of this diagram for real proteins.

Thermo-mechanical facies representative of fast and slow flowing ice sheets: the Weichselian ice sheet, a central west Poland case study

Abstract This study deals with an issue of thermo-mechanical facies, reflecting specific thermal and mechanical properties of the subglacial environment. The main objective of this study was to develop a model of glacitectionic deformation and its sedimentary record beneath fast and slow flowing ice sheets, based on investigations conducted in Wielkopolska (west central Poland). Sedimentary structures, mainly at the contact between subglacial tills and glacifluvial sediments, were recognized to delineate typical facies associations in a Weichselian glacigenic succession. Each association was interpreted as a record of the different depositional environments related to different subglacial conditions. Those investigations suggest the substratum was composed of frozen and dry, and wet and mobile spots, and four thermo-mechanical facies were distinguished: A – is representative of slower ice flow, dry and cold subglacial conditions, where driving stresses and normal effective pressure were high; B – is also related to slow ice flow and occurrence of cold subglacial permafrost, but with little amount of unfrozen water (however, higher than in facies A), with similar physical characteristics of the ice sheet as facies A; thermo-mechanical facies C and D represent wet and warm ice sole, with low normal effective pressure and driving stresses, thus lowering sediments’ shear strength and enabling high ice-flow velocities. We suggest that these facies have specific and non-random location, thereby revealing the relationship between subglacial thermo-mechanical conditions and ice sheet dynamics. Slow moving, cold-based ice occurred along ice sheet margins and inter-stream areas, whereas fast-moving, warm-based, well-lubricated ice, was typical of the axial parts of ice streams.

Thermoporoelastic properties of Flechtinger sandstone

This research addresses the thermomechanical response of a saturated sandstone in a geothermal reservoir. Several experiments were performed using a triaxial testing system to investigate thermal effects on poroelastic parameters of Flechtinger sandstone, an outcropping equivalent of the (Rotliegend) reservoir rock. In drained experiments, confining pressure was cycled, pore pressure was maintained constant and temperature was increased step-wise. The temperature dependence of the drained bulk modulus differed at low and high effective pressures. The unloading drained bulk modulus increased from 10.25 GPa to 11.74 GPa with increasing temperature from 30 °C to 120 °C at high stresses and decreased from 3.39 to 3.05 GPa at low stresses. The Biot coefficient decreased with increasing effective pressure and temperature. The inelastic behavior of the rock, the interrelation between thermal expansion coefficient and bulk modulus, and the path dependence of heat transfer processes govern the temperature effect on granular rock and changes in pore geometry.

Shear resistance and continuity of subglacial till: hydrology rules

AbstractThe field observations of G.S. Boulton stimulated widespread interest in deformable beds. Shear resistance of till in its critical state is insensitive to strain rate and increases linearly with effective pressure. During unsteady deformation, pseudo-viscous shear resistance can be caused by dilation of consolidated tills and resultant pore-pressure decline. This effect is probably uncommon, however, because susceptible tills of low hydraulic diffusivity are also those least likely to consolidate significantly during effective-pressure transients. Stick-slip motion at Whillans Ice Stream, Antarctica, indicates that its basal till must weaken during rapid slip and strengthen during longer periods of slower slip. Recurrence intervals for rapid-slip episodes there (6-18hours) indicate that till-strength variations, if driven by changes in pore pressure either related or unrelated to basal freezing, are focused in the uppermost several centimeters of the bed. Ploughing of grains at the bed surface and associated excess pore pressures in adjacent till can account for rate-weakening during rapid slip, with pore-pressure decay causing strengthening between slip episodes. By promoting shallow, sluggish subglacial water flow and low effective pressure, soft beds may help sustain themselves by slowing their own transport. Soft-bed shear resistance, kinematics and continuity are problems rooted in subglacial hydrology.

Macro-void structure and permeability of Auckland residual clay

The properties of the residual clays derived from in situ weathering of the Waitemata group sandstones and siltstones, found around Auckland, are known to be surprisingly variable. In addition, it is known that the permeability of the material decreases rapidly as the effective consolidation pressure is increased. A possible contribution to both the variability and the rapid decrease in permeability might be the void structure of the soil. The advent of micro-CT (computed tomography) scanning equipment provides an opportunity to examine how the shapes and sizes of the voids change with increasing consolidation pressure. This note presents a discussion on some preliminary results on small specimens of Auckland residual clay. These indicate that at low effective confining pressures there are some quite large macrovoids. These are found to be greatly diminished in size when the effective confining pressure reaches about 200 kPa. From very low effective consolidation pressures up to about 200 kPa the permeability decreases markedly.