Low Ablation Threshold Research Articles

Investigations of the Laser Ablation Mechanism of PMMA Microchannels Using Single-Pass and Multi-Pass Laser Scans.

CO2 laser machining is a cost effective and time saving solution for fabricating microchannels on polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). Due to the lack of research on the incubation effect and ablation behavior of PMMA under high-power laser irradiation, predictions of the microchannel profile are limited. In this study, the ablation process and mechanism of a continuous CO2 laser machining process on microchannel production in PMMA in single-pass and multi-pass laser scan modes are investigated. It is found that a higher laser energy density of a single pass causes a lower ablation threshold. The ablated surface can be divided into three regions: the ablation zone, the incubation zone, and the virgin zone. The PMMA ablation process is mainly attributed to the thermal decomposition reactions and the splashing of molten polymer. The depth, width, aspect ratio, volume ablation rate, and mass ablation rate of the channel increase as the laser scanning speed decreases and the number of laser scans increases. The differences in ablation results obtained under the same total laser energy density using different scan modes are attributed to the incubation effect, which is caused by the thermal deposition of laser energy in the polymer. Finally, an optimized simulation model that is used to solve the problem of a channel width greater than spot diameter is proposed. The error percentage between the experimental and simulation results varies from 0.44% to 5.9%.

Laser ablation on coated metal gravures for roll-to-roll printed electronics

Ultrafast laser micromachining plays an important role in the manufacturing of electronics. Especially, rotogravure processing produces high-resolution patterns for roll-to-roll printed electronic circuits. However, this technique still poses some limitations. This study introduces a new technique for coating gravures on a “soft” metal to improve the precision of rotogravure processing for manufacturing roll-to-roll electronics. The coating is termed “soft” because it has a lower ablation threshold fluence than the metal gravure core. The resulting U-shaped grooves offer several advantages over the V-shaped grooves typically formed through laser ablation on a single-layer material. Conductive ink transfers more completely from the U-shaped grooves, offering increased precision with respect to the resulting parts and saving ink.

In Vitro Experimental and Numerical Studies on the Preferential Ablation of Chemo-Resistant Tumor Cells Induced by High-Voltage Nanosecond Pulsed Electric Fields.

Here, we introduce an emerging physical feature-based therapeutic approach based on nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEFs). The goal of this study is to investigate the effect of nsPEFs on CRTCs. The cell viability, ablation effects on a 3D-cultured scaffold, and lethal thresholds of nsPEFs were evaluated according to fluorescence staining assays. nsPEF treatment preferentially affected chemoresistant cells (A549/CDDP) with a higher cell viability inhibition ability/cell death rate, larger ablation area, and lower ablation threshold compared to their respective homologous tumor cells (A549). The experimental and theoretical studies suggested that nsPEFs displayed selective behavior toward intracellular structures. With this selective character, nsPEFs can induce higher electroporation effects (e.g., higher pore number, larger electroporation area, and faster fluorescence dissipation on the nuclear envelope) on CRTCs due to their larger nuclear size and cell membrane capacitance. These findings demonstrated that nsPEFs induced preferential ablation of CRTCs over their respective homologous tumor cells. This study provides an experimental and theoretical basis for the study of killing CRTCs by electrical treatments and suggests potential applications in the optimization of novel anti-chemoresistance methods.

Theoretical fundamentals of short pulse laser–metal interaction: A review

Short and ultrashort pulse lasers offer excellent advantages in laser precision machining mainly because of their high pulse energy and low ablation threshold. The complex process of laser interaction with metals limits the in-depth investigation into laser ablation. Numerical simulation is important in the study of fundamental mechanisms. This review explores the start-of-the-art methods for the theoretical simulation of the laser ablation of metals, including plasma formation and expansion. Laser-induced period surface structures are also studied.

Determination of trace heavy metal elements in aqueous solution using surface-enhanced laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy.

Heavy metal pollution is one of the main problems in water pollution, which is harmful to humans. Surface-enhanced laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (SENLIBS) has been applied to detect trace amounts of heavy metal elements in aqueous solution; however, it is still a big challenge to explore the relationship between the LIBS detection sensitivity and the substrate's physical properties. In this work, four typical substrates, zinc (Zn), magnesium alloy (Mg), nickel (Ni), and silicon (Si), were compared; and the mechanism of spectral enhancement by different substrates in SENLIBS was investigated. The results indicated that the limit of detection (LoD) of heavy metal elements on different substrates is positively proportional to the boiling of the substrate. That is mainly because a higher plasma excitation temperature and electron density are obtained, leading to more intense collision between particles. The signal enhancement is associated with the lower boiling point of the substrate (corresponding to a lower ablation threshold and higher ablation quantity from the substrate). As a result, the best LoD was 0.0011 mg/L for chromium (Cr) and 0.004 mg/L for lead (Pb) on an optimal Zn substrate, respectively. The LoDs were sufficiently low to meet the drinking water sanitation standard. These results showed that the detection sensitivity of heavy metal elements in aqueous solution can be improved by choosing a substrate with a lower boiling point in SENLIBS.

Picosecond laser fabrication of nanostructures on ITO film surface assisted by pre-deposited Au film

With greater optical penetration depth and lower ablation threshold fluence, it is difficult to directly fabricate large scales of laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSSs) on indium–tin–oxide (ITO) films. This study proposed an approach to obtain optimized LIPSSs by sputtering an Au thin film on the ITO film surface. The concept behind the proposal is that the upper layer of the thin Au film can cause surface energy aggregation, inducing the initial ripple structures. The ripples deepened and become clear with lower energy due to optical trapping. The effective mechanism of Au film was analyzed and verified by a series of experiments. Linear sweep, parallel to the laser polarization direction, was performed using a Nd:VAN laser system with 10-ps Q-switched pulse, at a central wavelength of 532 nm, with a repetition rate of 1 kHz. The complete and clear features of the nanostructures, obtained with the periods of approximately 320 nm, were observed on ITO films with proper laser fluence and scanning speed. The depth of ripples was varying in the range of 15–65 nm with clear and coherent ITO films. The preferred efficiency of fabricating nanostructures and the excellent results were obtained at a scanning speed of 2.5 mm/s and a fluence of 0.189 J/cm2. In this way, the ablation and shedding of ITO films was successfully avoided. Thus, the proposed technique can be considered to be a promising method for the laser machining of special nonmetal films.

Laser beam shaping for enhanced Zero-Group Velocity Lamb modes generation.

Optimization of Lamb modes induced by laser can be achieved by adjusting the spatial source distribution to the mode wavelength (λ). The excitability of Zero-Group Velocity (ZGV) resonances in isotropic plates is investigated both theoretically and experimentally for axially symmetric sources. Optimal parameters and amplitude gains are derived analytically for spot and annular sources of either Gaussian or rectangular energy profiles. For a Gaussian spot source, the optimal radius is found to be λZGV/π. Annular sources increase the amplitude by at least a factor of 3 compared to the optimal Gaussian source. Rectangular energy profiles provide higher gain than Gaussian ones. These predictions are confirmed by semi-analytical simulation of the thermoelastic generation of Lamb waves, including the effect of material attenuation. Experimentally, Gaussian ring sources of controlled width and radius are produced with an axicon-lens system. Measured optimal geometric parameters obtained for Gaussian and annular beams are in good agreement with theoretical predictions. A ZGV resonance amplification factor of 2.1 is obtained with the Gaussian ring. Such source should facilitate the inspection of highly attenuating plates made of low ablation threshold materials like composites.

Ablation characteristics of electrospun core-shell nanofiber by femtosecond laser

This study examined the femtosecond laser ablation properties of core and shell polymers their relationship to the ablation characteristics of core-shell nanofibers. The single-pulse ablation threshold of bulk polycaprolactone (PCL) was measured to be 2.12J/cm2 and that of bulk polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was 4.07J/cm2. The incubation coefficients were measured to be 0.82±0.02 for PCL and 0.53±0.03 for PDMS. PDMS-PCL core-shell and pure PCL nanofibers were fabricated by electrospinning. The energy/volume of pure PCL and PDMS-PCL core-shell nanofiber ablation was investigated by measuring linear ablation grooves made at different scanning speeds. At large scanning speed, higher energy/volume was required for machining PDMS-PCL nanofiber than for PCL nanofiber. However, at small scanning speed, comparable energy/volume was measured for PDMS-PCL and PCL nanofiber ablation. Additionally, in linear scanned ablation of PDMS-PCL fibers at small laser pulse energy and large scanning speed, there were partially ablated fibers where the shell was ablated but the core remained. This was attributed to the lower ablation threshold of the shell material.

Keratin film ablation for the fabrication of brick and mortar skin structure using femtosecond laser pulses

The patterning of thin keratin films has been explored to manufacture model skin surfaces based on the “bricks and mortar” view of the relationship between keratin and lipids. It has been demonstrated that laser light is capable of preparing keratin-based “bricks and mortar” wall structure as in epidermis, the outermost layer of the human skin. “Bricks and mortar” pattern in keratin films has been fabricated using an ArF excimer laser (193 nm wavelength) and femtosecond laser (800 and 400 nm wavelength). Due to the very low ablation threshold of keratin, femtosecond laser systems are practical for laser processing of proteins. These model skin structures are fabricated for the first time that will help to produce potentially effective moisturizing products for the protection of skin from dryness, diseases and wrinkles.

Photoactive dye-enhanced tissue ablation for endoscopic laser prostatectomy.

Laser light has been widely used as a surgical tool to treat benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) over 20 years. Recently, application of high laser power up to 200 W was often reported to swiftly remove a large amount of prostatic tissue. The purpose of this study was to validate the feasibility of photoactive dye injection to enhance light absorption and eventually to facilitate tissue vaporization with low laser power. Chicken breast tissue was selected as a target tissue due to minimal optical absorption at the visible wavelength. Four biocompatible photoactive dyes, including amaranth (AR), black dye (BD), hemoglobin powder (HP), and endoscopic marker (EM), were selected and tested in vitro with a customized 532 nm laser system with radiant exposure ranging from 0.9 to 3.9 J/cm(2) . Light absorbance and ablation threshold were measured with UV-Vis spectrometer and Probit analysis, respectively, and compared to feature the function of the injected dyes. Ablation performance with dye-injection was evaluated in light of radiant exposure, dye concentration, and number of injection. Higher light absorption by injected dyes led to lower ablation threshold as well as more efficient tissue removal in the order of AR, BD, HP, and EM. Regardless of the injected dyes, ablation efficiency principally increased with radiant exposure, dye concentration, and number of injection. Among the dyes, AR created the highest ablation rate of 44.2 ± 0.2 µm/pulse due to higher absorbance and lower ablation threshold. High aspect ratios up to 7.1 ± 0.4 entailed saturation behavior in the tissue ablation injected with AR and BD, possibly resulting from plume shielding and increased scattering due to coagulation. Preliminary tests on canine prostate with a hydraulic injection system demonstrated that 80 W with dye injection yielded comparable ablation efficiency to 120 W with no injection, indicating 33% reduced laser power with almost equivalent performance. Due to efficient coupling of optical energy, pre-injection of photoactive dyes promoted the degree of tissue removal during laser irradiation. Further studies will investigate spatial distribution of dyes and optimal injecting pressure to govern the extent of dye-assisted ablation in a predictable manner. In-depth comprehension on photoactive dye-enhanced tissue ablation can help accomplish efficient and safe laser vaporization for BPH with low power application.

Pulse laser machining and particulate separation from high impact polystyrene

Opaque high impact polystyrene (HIPS) contaminated with graphite particles and poly(styrene-co-divinyl benzene) spheres can only be removed efficiently with nanosecond-pulsed laser radiation of 532nm while the substrate is preserved. The destruction thresholds are 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than that of other common technical polymers. The inhomogeneously distributed polybutadiene composite component led to enhanced light scattering in the polystyrene matrix so that increased light absorption and energy density causes a comparatively low ablation threshold. Due to this fact there is advantageous potential for pulse laser machining at comparatively low fluences.

Sub-500-nm patterning of glass by nanosecond KrF excimer laser ablation

The surface of flint glass of type F2 is patterned by nanosecond KrF excimer laser ablation. Strong UV absorption provides a comparatively low ablation threshold and precise ablation contours. By using a two-grating interferometer, periodic surface patterns with 330 nm period and 100 nm modulation depth are obtained. This method enables the fabrication of 7 mm×13 mm wide grating areas with perfectly aligned grooves without the need of high-precision sample positioning. By double exposure, crossed gratings with adjustable depths in the two orthogonal directions can be generated.

Picosecond laser structuring of thin film platinum layers covered with tantalum pentoxide isolation

A thin film layer system consisting of platinum (Pt) as conductive layer on a glass substrate and tantalum pentoxide as isolating layer on top of the platinum is attractive for designing biocompatible conductor paths and contact pads for bio sensor chips. For the flexible and rapid patterning of the conductive and the isolating layers, both, the complete removal and the selective ablation of the individual thin films were investigated using ultra-short laser pulses with about 10 ps pulse duration and 1064 nm wavelength at low laser fluences. A platinum film covered with tantalum pentoxide shows a significantly lower ablation threshold than a single Pt film on glass alone when illuminated from the front side. Furthermore, we explored that the tantalum pentoxide film can be removed by glass side illumination from the Pt film, without affecting the Pt film and leaving the Pt film on the glass substrate intact. Those ablation phenomena occur at laser fluences of about 0.2 J/cm2, far below the evaporation limit of platinum. We present a detailed ablation threshold value examination for the structuring of these layer systems by front side and glass side irradiation for different film thicknesses. Furthermore, we discuss the possible underlying physical mechanisms of these ablation phenomena.

Ultrashort-pulse laser ablation of nanocrystalline aluminum

Molecular-dynamics simulations of the ablation of nanocrystalline Al films by ultrashort laser pulses in the low-fluence (no-ionization) regime (0--2.5 times the ablation threshold, ${F}_{\mathrm{th}}$) are reported. The simulations employ an embedded-atom method potential for the dynamics of the ions and a realistic two-temperature model for the electron gas (and its interactions with the ion gas), which confers different electronic properties to the monocrystalline solid, nanocrystalline solid, and liquid regions of the targets. The ablation dynamics in three nanocrystalline structures is studied: two dense targets with different crystallite sizes ($d=3.1$ and 6.2 nm on average) and a $d=6.2$ nm porous sample. The results are compared to the ablation of monocrystalline Al. Significant differences are observed, the nanocrystalline targets showing, in particular, a lower ablation threshold and a larger melting depth, and yielding pressure waves of higher amplitude than the monocrystalline targets. Furthermore, it is shown that nanocrystalline targets experience no residual stress associated with thermal expansion and lateral constraints, and that little crystal growth occurs in the solid during and after ablation. Laser-induced spallation of the back surface of the films is also investigated; we find, in particular, that the high-strain fracture resistance of nanocrystalline samples is significantly reduced in comparison to the crystalline material.

Two‐Temperature Warm Dense Matter Produced by Ultrashort Extreme Vacuum Ultraviolet‐Free Electron Laser (EUV‐FEL) Pulse

AbstractUltrashort X‐ray laser pulse acts onto electron subsystem of dielectrics such as LiF and transfers matter into a two‐temperature state with hot electrons excited by the pulse from valence to conduction band. Because of the small heat conduction, the hydrodynamic motion proceeds in adiabatic regime keeping the radiation attenuation depth Datt as the only scale of the spatial heat distribution. Hydrodynamic motion qualitatively changes with absorbed energy increase. At low fluences F ∼ 10mJ/cm2 a spallative removal of LiF remaining in solid state takes place. This is a reason for the low ablation threshold. The paper presents new experimental findings supporting this conclusion. For the first time these findings are obtained using ultrashort extreme vacuum ultraviolet‐free electron laser (EUV‐FEL). In the case of high fluence, also achieved in our experiments at EUV‐FEL, material removal happens as result of outflow of matter transferred into the gaseous state. This explains the slow growth of the amount of ablated mass with significant fluence increase (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Fixation of bioactive calcium alkali phosphate on Ti6Al4V implant material with femtosecond laser pulses

Bone implants made of metal, often titanium or the titanium alloy Ti6Al4V, need to be surface treated to become bioactive. This enables the formation of a firm and durable connection of the prosthesis with the living bone. We present a new method to uniformly cover Ti6Al4V with a thin layer of ceramics that imitates bone material. These calcium alkali phosphates, called GB14 and Ca10, are applied to the metal by dip coating of metal plates into an aqueous slurry containing the fine ceramic powder. The dried samples are illuminated with the 790 nm radiation of a pulsed femtosecond laser. If the laser fluence is set to a value just below the ablation threshold of the ceramic (ca. 0.4 J/cm 2) the 30 fs laser pulses penetrate the partly transparent ceramic layer of 20–40 μm thickness. The remaining laser fluence at the ceramic–metal interface is still high enough to generate a thin metal melt layer leading to the ceramic fixation on the metal. The laser processing step is only possible because Ti6Al4V has a lower ablation threshold (between 0.1 and 0.15 J/cm 2) than the ceramic material. After laser treatment in a fluence range between 0.1 and 0.4 J/cm 2, only the particles in contact with the metal withstand a post-laser treatment (ultrasonic cleaning). The non-irradiated rest of the layer is washed off. In this work, we present results of a successful ceramic fixation extending over larger areas. This is fundamental for future applications of arbitrarily shaped implants.

Effects of femtosecond laser ablation on Vitrovac 6025X

In the development of extremely sensitive magnetic sensors, the processing of the soft magnetic materials is extremely critical as this affects the performance of the materials in the sensing element. Laser cutting is a fast, direct and simple approach to process soft magnetic materials into magnetic sensors. Traditionally, nanosecond laser introduces thermal stresses which greatly deteriorate magnetic properties. Femtosecond laser, which has a lower ablation threshold and smaller heat affected zones, stands to be a potential candidate to solve such thermal and processing issues of processed magnetic materials. In this paper, Ti: sapphire femtosecond laser was used to pattern and cut commercially available magnetic ribbon (Vitrovac 6025X) into a square of 5 mm × 5 mm with a 2 mm long channel at the centre of the specimens. Laser fluence was varied to investigate the effects of femtosecond laser on (i) quality of laser ablated channel; (ii) material composition; and (iii) magnetic properties of the magnetic ribbon. Channels with well-defined edges were observed at lower laser fluences. With increasing laser fluence, molten walls were formed. Chemical composition of the magnetic ribbon remains similar at the channel walls, regions just beside the walls and no laser-processed areas. Hysteresis loops obtained for varying laser fluences and varying the number of ablated channels in the magnetic foil suggest that femtosecond laser processing does not significantly affect the coercivities and magnetic anisotropies of the workpiece material.

Multiphoton Fragmentation of PAMAM G5-Capped Gold Nanoparticles Induced by Picosecond Laser Irradiation at 532 nm

Fifth-generation ethylendiamine-core poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM G5)-capped gold nanoparticles were prepared by picosecond laser ablation in water, with the fundamental and second harmonic of a picosecond Nd:YAG laser. Although the visible wavelength exhibited a lower ablation threshold than that of the infrared one, the ablation process at 532 nm reached early saturation because of both linear and nonlinear absorption mechanisms, accompanied by fragmentation of existing nanoparticles. We demonstrate that the onset of the fragmentation can be monitored by simple UV−vis spectroscopy, thanks to the ability of PAMAM G5 to stabilize gold cations, which results in the growth of an intense band at 290 nm. We observed that, while with 532 nm (2.33 eV) irradiation a two-photon absorption mechanism induces fragmentation of the nanoparticles, the suspensions remain stable when irradiated with 1064 nm (1.17 eV) up to 60 GW/cm2.

Local chemical transformations in poly(dimethylsiloxane) by irradiation with 248 and 266nm

Abstract Poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) has been irradiated with a frequency quadrupled Nd:YAG laser and a KrF * -excimer laser at a repetition rate of 1 Hz. The analysis of ablation depth versus pulse number data reveals a pronounced incubation behavior. The thresholds of ablation (266 nm: 210 mJ cm −2 , 248 nm: 940 mJ cm −2 ) and the corresponding effective absorption coefficients α eff (266 nm: 48900 cm −1 , 248 nm: 32700 cm −1 , α lin = 2 cm −1 ) were determined. The significant differences in the ablation thresholds for both irradiation wavelengths are probably due to the different pulse lengths of both lasers. Since the shorter pulse length yields a lower ablation threshold, the observed incubation can be due to a thermally induced and/or a multi-photon absorption processes of the material or impurities in the polymer. Incubation of polymers is normally related to changes of the chemical structure of the polymer. In the case of PDMS, incubation is associated with local chemical transformations up to several hundred micrometers below the polymer surface. It is possible to study these local chemical transformations by confocal Raman microscopy, because PDMS is transparent in the visible. The domains of transformation consist of carbon and silicon, as indicated by the appearance of the carbon D- and G-bands between 1310 and 1610 cm −1 , a band appearing between 502 and 520 cm −1 can be assigned to mono- and/or polycrystalline silicon. The ablation products, which are detected in the surroundings of the ablation crater consist of carbon and amorphous SiO x ( x ≈ 1.5) as detected by infrared spectroscopy.

Ablation of metals with picosecond laser pulses: Evidence of long-lived nonequilibrium conditions at the surface

We report here experimental results on laser ablation of metals in air and in vacuum in similar irradiation conditions. The experiments revealed that the ablation thresholds in air are less than half those measured in vacuum. Our analysis shows that this difference is caused by the existence of a long-lived transient nonequilibrium surface state at the solid-vacuum interface. The energy distribution of atoms at the surface is Maxwellian-like but with its high-energy tail truncated at the binding energy. We find that in vacuum the time needed for energy transfer from the bulk to the surface layer to build the high-energy tail, exceeds other characteristic timescales such as the electron-ion temperature equilibration time and surface cooling time. This prohibits thermal evaporation in vacuum for which the high-energy tail is essential. In air, however, collisions between the gas atoms and the surface markedly reduce the lifetime of this nonequilibrium surface state allowing thermal evaporation to proceed before the surface cools. We find, therefore, that the threshold in vacuum corresponds to nonequilibrium ablation during the pulse, while thermal evaporation after the pulse is responsible for the lower ablation threshold observed in air. This paper provides direct experimental evidence of how the transient surface effects may strongly affect the onset and rate of a solid-gas phase transition.