Long-term Storage Stability Research Articles

Highly stable deep-blue emitting CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets with modified zwitterionic surface passivation

Two-dimensional CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets (NPLs) with narrow emission line width are one of the most promising materials for lighting and display applications. Nevertheless, it has been difficult to successfully synthesize deep-blue emitting CsPbBr3 NPLs with long-term stability and high photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY), which prevents their widespread application in the field of lighting. The use of ligands engineering strategy has demonstrated an increase in the PLQY and stability. Herein, a method employing in situ formation of modified zwitterionic surface ligands is proposed to successfully synthesize high-quality CsPbBr3 NPLs. Zwitterionic passivation strategy can produce deep blue emission of CsPbBr3 NPLs at ∼ 461 nm, achieving a near-unity quantum yield and excellent stability for long-term storage at room-temperature, heat treatment, and ultraviolet irradiation. This enhancement can be attributed to the strong chelation between the modified zwitterions and the surface of CsPbBr3 NPLs, which can effectively immobilize surface halide ions and passivate surface defects. This work provides a flexible way to achieve high PLQY and improve the stability issues in perovskite NPLs.

Immobilization of Xylanase on ZnO nanoparticles obtained by green synthesis from Eupatorium cannabinum L. and its application in enrichment of fruit juices

Juice production is one of the main components of the nutritional food industry. Therefore, improving fruit juice quality and preventing the formation of negative by-products is important for human health. The role of environmentally friendly, safe and economically more affordable green nanocarriers in improving the quality of fruit juice is increasing day by day. For this purpose, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) were prepared from the aqueous extract of the Eupatorium cannabinum L. using the green synthesis method. After immobilization, structural and morphological characterizations of the prepared ZnONPs and xylanase (Xyl)@ZnONPs were carried out, which confirmed that both the synthesis of ZnONPs and the immobilization of Xyl enzyme on ZnONPs were successfully carried out. The biochemical parameters of Xyl@ZnONPs such as optimum pH and temperature, kinetic parameters, thermal stability, reusability, and storage stability were investigated and compared with free Xyl. After immobilization, the optimum pH of free Xyl shifted from 5.0 to an alkaline pH of 8.0, while no change in the optimum temperature (70 °C) was observed for both enzymes. While the activation energy of free Xyl was 5.56 kJ/mol, it was found to be 7.27 kJ/mol for Xyl@ZnONPs. Xyl@ZnONPs outperformed free Xyl due to its long-term storage stability and reusability. Moreover, Xyl@ZnONPs retained 50 % of its activity after 5 reuses and 87 % of its activity after 4 weeks of storage at room temperature. In addition, a decrease in Km value and an increase in Vmax value were observed after immobilization, which means the increased catalytic activity of the Xyl@ZnONPs. As a result of re-using Xyl@ZnONPs in orange juice for 6 cycles, clarification yield of 66.43 % was obtained under optimized conditions. Overall, this study prepared a suitable, environmentally friendly, and robust carrier support for Xyl immobilization and developed a biocatalyst that will provide high performance in the industrial field.

Robust transparent Ag nanowire electrode for bifacial perovskite solar cells

Silver nanowire (Ag NW)-based transparent back electrodes prepared via all solution-process are promising for bifacial and semitransparent perovskite solar cells (PSCs). However, the inadequate electrical contact between the silver nanowires themselves and the contact with substrate leads to reduced overall solar cell performance; meanwhile, serious corrosion of Ag NW in ambient environment restricting the further applications. In this work, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as a binder in Ag NW electrode significantly enhances the conductivity and transparency at the same time improving the interface electric contact. The PSC with PVP modified Ag NW electrode demonstrated frontside and backside efficiency approaching 18 % and 14.1 % (AM1.5, 1 Sun), respectively, which achieves 82 % efficiency with normal Ag device and bifacial factor of 79 %. The long-term storage stability of PSC is also improved by PVP protection. The final device structure is ITO/NiOx/MeO/(FA0.92MA0.08)0.95Cs0.05Pb(I0.9Br0.1)3/PEAI/PC61BM/BCP/ Ag NW. This work highlights the method to fabricate robust transparent Ag NW electrode for bifacial perovskite solar cells.

Thermodynamic performance of SiC-enhanced MicroPCM backfill based on response surface methodology

The functional backfilling in mining achieves synergistic co-mining of deep-earth deposits-geothermal, and the development of functional filling materials with suitable phase change parameters and excellent physicochemical properties is imminent. This study aims to investigate the optimal composition of phase change energy storage backfill material based on MicroPCM. To address the issues of reduced compressive strength and specific heat capacity of MicroPCM-backfill, silicon carbide (SiC) is introduced to prepare MPSC-backfill. Box-Behnken Design (BBD) is proposed to design and analyze according to four factors (ash-sand ratio, slurry concentration, MicroPCM, SiC), three levels (compressive strength, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity) and three center points. Based on the Response Surface Methodology, the multivariate quadratic polynomial model was used to perform multiple linear regression and binomial fitting analysis to explore the optimal ratio. Combined with SEM-EDS (Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy) analysis, the following conclusions were drawn. SiC exhibits an overall enhancement of the compressive strength of the backfill, and the thermal conductivity tends to increase almost linearly. The specific heat capacity grows in a small amount of silicon carbide doping, but excessive amounts lead to a decrease, with an overall limited impact. The addition of SiC does not affect the phase change ability of MicroPCM. And within a certain range of added quantities, it optimizes specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and compressive strength. Experimental validation based on the obtained optimal composition shows errors within a 5% margin, indicating the response model's good accuracy and predictability. High and low-temperature cyclic tests confirm the long-term thermal energy storage stability of MPSC-backfill during phase change cycles.

Overcoming thermostability challenges in mRNA–lipid nanoparticle systems with piperidine-based ionizable lipids

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as promising platforms for efficient in vivo mRNA delivery owing to advancements in ionizable lipids. However, maintaining the thermostability of mRNA/LNP systems remains challenging. While the importance of only a small amount of lipid impurities on mRNA inactivation is clear, a fundamental solution has not yet been proposed. In this study, we investigate an approach to limit the generation of aldehyde impurities that react with mRNA nucleosides through the chemical engineering of lipids. We demonstrated that piperidine-based lipids improve the long-term storage stability of mRNA/LNPs at refrigeration temperature as a liquid formulation. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis and additional lipid synthesis revealed that amine moieties of ionizable lipids play a vital role in limiting reactive aldehyde generation, mRNA–lipid adduct formation, and loss of mRNA function during mRNA/LNP storage. These findings highlight the importance of lipid design and help enhance the shelf-life of mRNA/LNP systems.

Highly flexible and transparent self-healing elastomer based on localized supramolecular interactions with enhanced mechanical properties and long-term storage stability

This study prepared a highly flexible and transparent self-healing elastomer with enhanced mechanical properties and long-term storage stability, facilitated by localized supramolecular interactions. By incorporating a functional oligomer containing localized urea groups into a conventional elastomeric matrix, increased supramolecular interactions were promoted through multiple hydrogen bonds among clustered functional groups. The resulting supramolecular elastomers exhibited excellent optical properties, including total transmittance exceeding 90 %, yellow index less than 2, and haze under 1 %, along with elastic recovery of 40 %. Notably, the self-healing elastomer developed in this study effectively overcame the typical trade-off between mechanical and self-healing properties in conventional self-healing materials, achieving superior mechanical strengths compared to conventional elastomers and an outstanding self-healing efficiency of 94.0 % within a few minutes. Moreover, by tailoring the chemical structure of the oligomer, significant improvements in the long-term solution storage stability of the solution for urea systems were achieved. These results are attributed to the unique supramolecular network derived from multiple hydrogen bonding interactions among the localized functional groups in a confined zone. A mechanism for improved mechanical properties and outstanding self-healing performance is also proposed using a model system.

Biochemical characterization, stability, and kinetics of three substrates of the recombinant TMPRSS2 serine protease domain

Transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) is a membrane-bound protease belonging to the type II transmembrane serine protease (TTSP) family. It is a multidomain protein, including a serine protease domain responsible for its self-activation. The protein has been implicated as an oncogenic transcription factor and for its ability to cleave (prime) the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. In order to characterize the TMPRSS2 biochemical properties, we expressed the serine protease domain (rTMPRSS2_SP) in Komagataella phaffii using the pPICZαA vector and purified it using immobilized metal affinity (Ni Sepharose™ excel) and size exclusion (Superdex 75) chromatography. We explored operational fluorescence resonance energy transfer FRET peptides as substrates. We chose the peptide Abz-QARK-(Dnp)-NH2 (Abz = ortho-aminobenzoic acid, the fluorescence donor, and Dnp = 2,4-dinitrophenyl, the quencher group) as a substrate to find the optimal conditions for maximum enzymatic activity. We found that metallic ions such as Ca2+ and Na+ increased enzymatic activity, but ionic surfactants and reducing agents decreased catalytic capacity. Finally, we determined the rTMPRSS2_SP stability for long-term storage. Altogether, our results represent the first comprehensive characterization of TMPRSS2’s biochemical properties, providing valuable insights into its serine protease domain.

Silica Surface Coating of Blue Light-Emitting CsPbBr3 Nanoplatelets for Improved Stability in Polar Solvents and Long-Term Storage

Silica Surface Coating of Blue Light-Emitting CsPbBr₃ Nanoplatelets for Improved Stability in Polar Solvents and Long-Term Storage

Grapefruit-Inspired Polymeric Capsule with Hierarchical Microstructure: Advanced Nanomaterial Carrier Platform for Energy Storage, Drug Delivery, Catalysis, and Environmental Applications.

Efficient support materials are crucial for maximizing the efficacy of nanomaterials in various applications such as energy storage, drug delivery, catalysis, and environmental remediation. However, traditional supports often hinder nanomaterial performance due to their high weight ratio and limited manageability, leading to issues like tube blocking and secondary pollution. To address this, a novel grapefruit-inspired polymeric capsule (GPC) as a promising carrier platform is introduced. The millimeter-scale GPC features a hydrophilic shell and an internal hierarchical microstructure with 80% void volume, providing ample space for encapsulating diverse nanomaterials including metals, polymers, metal-organic frameworks, and silica. Through liquid-phase bottom-up methods, it is successfully loaded Fe2O3, SiO2, polyacrylic acid, and Prussian blue nanomaterials onto the GPC, achieving high mass ratio (1776, 488, 898, and 634wt.%, respectively). The GPC shell prevents nanomaterial leakage and the influx of suspended solids, while its internal framework enhances structural stability and mass transfer rates. With long-term storage stability, high carrying capacity, and versatile applicability, the GPC significantly enhances the field applicability of nanomaterials.

Sulfur-functionalized graphene obtained by a non-thermal plasma process for simultaneous electrochemical determination of tert-butylhydroquinone and bisphenol A

Electrochemical sensors based on graphene have proven to be powerful tools for detecting bisphenol A (BPA) and tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) individually. There are currently no reports of these analytes being detected simultaneously. By assembling graphene-based materials on gold surfaces, it is possible to improve the charge transfer of both analytes. This study utilized non-thermal plasma-assisted synthesis with a sulfur-containing precursor to functionalize graphene (S-Graph), resulting in the fabrication of an ultrasensitive electrochemical sensor that can detect both BPA and TBHQ, simultaneously. Compared with native graphene or a traditional surface of gold electrode, S-Graph/Au retained superior electrochemical activity for both analytes that showed significantly enhanced sensing performance, including a wide linear range, with a detection limit of 13 and 54 nmol L−1 for TBHQ and BPA, respectively. The enhanced long-term storage stability, as well as reproducibility showed that S-Graph is a promising strategy for promoting the application of novel graphene-based materials.

Development and characterization of a bacterial enzyme cascade reaction system for efficient and stable PET degradation

The widespread use of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in various industries has led to a surge in microplastics (MPs) pollution, posing a significant threat to ecosystems and human health. To address this, we have developed a bacterial enzyme cascade reaction system (BECRS) that focuses on the efficient degradation of PET. This system harnesses the Escherichia coli (E. coli) surface to display CsgA protein, which forms curli fibers, along with the carbohydrate-binding module 3 (CBM3) and PETases, to enhance the adsorption and degradation of PET. The study demonstrated that the BECRS achieved a notable PET film degradation rate of 3437 ± 148 μg/(d*cm²), with a degradation efficiency of 21.40% for crystalline PET MPs, and the degradation products were all converted to TPA. The stability of the system was evidenced by retaining over 80% of its original activity after multiple uses and during one month of storage. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed that the presence of CsgA did not interfere with the enzymatic activity of PETases. This BECRS represents a significant step forward in the biodegradation of PET, particularly microplastics, offering a practical and sustainable solution for environmental pollution control.

Impact of essential oils from agro waste as antioxidants on biodiesel long-term storage stability for CI engines: Fresh and aged evaluations

This research aims to ameliorate the oxidation and storage stability of Prosopis juliflora Methyl Ester (PJME) using the Rancimat method (EN14112). Agricultural waste-derived essential oils (AWEOs), such as Citrus Aurantifolia L. (CA), Curcuma longa L. (CL), and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn (EC), were used as natural antioxidants alongside the commonly used synthetic antioxidant TBHQ. The concentrations of antioxidants ranged from 0% to 4% (v/v % of biodiesel). Results indicated that adding 4% CA to raw PJME extended the induction period (IP) from 2.64 h to 11.2 h at the end of 60 days, meeting EN14214 standards and exhibiting the highest antioxidant activity. TBHQ is less effective at lower concentrations; however, it is comparable to CL at higher concentrations. At 4% TBHQ with PJME, the IP was 9.9, 8.8, and 8.1 hours at the end of 15, 30, and 45 days of storage, respectively. Furthermore, this study uniquely compared the performance and emissions of a CI engine fuelled with a fresh B30 blend, B30 blends stored for 60 days (aged) without and with the addition of an optimal 4% CA antioxidant. The results showed that adding 4% CA to the B30 blend extended its IPs to 34.5 hours, meeting EN590 standards for FAME blends. Compared to B30–60d, the B30+4CA-60d blend exhibited a 9.4% increase in BTE and a 6.5% decrease in BSFC at a BMEP of 4.15 bar. It has an emission reduction potential of 47.8% for CO, 8% for HC, along with a marginal decrease in NOX emissions. Compared to D100, it significantly reduced CO emissions by 37.5%, HC emissions by 8%, and NOX emissions by 16.3%. These findings indicate that natural antioxidants effectively inhibit free radical formation and maintain biodiesel quality over extended storage on par with synthetic antioxidants. This finding is significant as it maintains engine performance and addresses global energy and environmental concerns.

ELISA assay for the quantification of ipilimumab in human serum, plasma, milk, and cerebrospinal fluid

Ipilimumab is an immune checkpoint inhibitor of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4). Ipilimumab has become part of the standard of care for different types of cancer. The efficacy of these treatments is limited due to immune-related toxicity and high economic costs. Dose rationalization studies based on pharmacokinetic data may help to address these limitations. For this purpose, more sensitive analytical methods are needed. We report the development and validation of the first enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for sensitive determination of ipilimumab concentrations in human serum, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and milk. Our assay is based on the specific capture of ipilimumab by immobilized CTLA-4. The lower limit of quantifications of ipilimumab in serum, plasma, and milk are 50 ng/mL and 10 ng/mL in CSF. The ELISA method showed long-term storage stability for at least one year at −80°C and was successfully cross-validated with ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The ELISA method is reliable, relatively inexpensive, and can be used in serum, plasma, CSF, and milk from patients treated with ipilimumab, as evidenced by the analysis of real clinical samples.

Encapsulation and characterization of ω-3 medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols microencapsulated with different proteins as wall materials

In this study, ω-3 medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCTs) microcapsules with excellent performance were obtained using soy protein as the wall component to address the oxidation-related problems of MLCTs. Additionally, the effect of soy, whey, or pea proteins on microcapsules in terms of the changes in their structure and physicochemical properties was investigated. The results showed that the small particle size, low PDI (polydispersity index) and zeta potential, fast adsorption rate, and low interfacial tension of these protein-based samples fabricated through the O/W template method were conducive to maintaining the integrity of microcapsules during spray-drying. The microcapsules, characterized by a spherical shape, exhibited superior encapsulation efficiency of 94.56%, surpassing the findings of previous investigations. Overall, these microcapsules exhibited long-term storage stability and low controllable release rates, which could be utilized as carriers for liposoluble actives.

Scattered Co-anchored MoS2 synergistically boosting photothermal capture and storage of phase change materials

Pristine phase change materials (PCMs) suffer from inherent deficiencies of poor solar absorption and photothermal conversion. Herein, we proposed a strategy of co-incorporation of zero-dimensional (0D) metal nanoparticles and two-dimensional (2D) photothermal materials in PCMs for efficient capture and conversion of solar energy into thermal energy. Highly scattered Co-anchored MoS2 nanoflower cluster serving as photon and phonon triggers was prepared by in-situ hydrothermal growth of ZIF67 polyhedron on 2D MoS2 and subsequent high-temperature carbonization. After encapsulating thermal storage unit (paraffin wax), the obtained composite PCMs integrated high-performance photothermal conversion and thermal energy storage capability. Benefiting from the synergistic enhancement of 0D Co nanoparticles with localized surface plasmon resonance effect, carbon layer with the conjugation effect and 2D MoS2 with strong solar absorption, composite PCMs exhibited a high photothermal conversion efficiency of 95.19%. Additionally, the resulting composite PCMs also demonstrated long-term thermal storage stability and durable structural stability after 300 thermal cycles. The proposed collaborative co-incorporation strategy provides some innovative references for developing next-generation photothermal PCMs in solar energy utilization.

Integrated preparation of functional lignin nanoparticles and levulinic acid directly from the pre-hydrolysis liquor of poplar wood

The pre-hydrolysis liquor (PHL) produced during pulp dissolution and biomass refining is mainly composed of hemicellulose and lignin, and it is a potential source for production of value-added materials and platform chemicals; however, their utilization has been a serious challenge. In this study, we proposed a green and simple strategy to simultaneously prepare size-controlled functional lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) and levulinic acid (LA) from PHL as the raw material. The as-prepared LNPs exhibited remarkable stability thanks to the presence of saccharides with abundant oxygen-containing groups and surface charges, which prevented aggregation and maintained long-term storage stability. Trace amounts of the LNPs (≤ 0.2 wt%) could stabilize various Pickering emulsions, even with oil-to-water ratios as high as 5:5 (v/v). Subsequently, the remaining PHL was directly used to produce LA without adding a catalyst; under optimal conditions (160 °C and 1 h), the yield of LA was 56.3 % based on the dry saccharide content in the raw PHL. More importantly, p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TsOH), the only reactive reagent used during the entire preparation process, including the two preparation steps of the LNPs and LA, was reusable, and the recovery rate was >70 % after five cycles. Overall, this green and simple strategy effectively and comprehensively utilized the PHL and showed potential for producing biobased nanomaterials and platform chemicals.

Synchronous surface reconstruction and grain boundary healing toward efficient and stable inverted CsPbI3 perovskite solar cells

Cesium lead iodide (CsPbI3) perovskite has gained considerable attentions due to its unique photoelectric properties. However, numerous defects are inevitably existed on the surface and grain boundaries (GBs) of CsPbI3 resulting from the rapid crystallization and growth progress. Herein, different from the traditional ammonium salt treatment mechanism, we propose a facile strategy to synchronously achieve surface reconstruction and grain boundary healing by using 1,3-propylene diamine (PDA) post-treatment on CsPbI3 film. It is discovered that the PDA with suitable concentration can preferentially invade the defect sites of surface and GBs of CsPbI3 film, thereby break the soft perovskite structure in the shallow surface. With further low temperature annealing treatment, the broken CsPbI3 surface would undergo rapid secondary crystal growth to acquire smoother and blurred morphology with reduced GBs and pinholes, primarily derived from the strong interaction between the highly active amino groups of liquid PDA and Pb of perovskite. Meanwhile, the residual PDA molecules mainly anchor at the surface and GBs, and thus connect neighboring perovskite grains, coordinate uncoordinated sites to effectively passivate defects, and also resist the external invasions. Consequently, the inverted PDA-based CsPbI3 device yields a champion PCE of 20.02% with significantly improved long-term storage stability and operational stability.

Disposable Polyaniline/m-Phenylenediamine-Based Electrochemical Lactate Biosensor for Early Sepsis Diagnosis.

Lactate serves as a crucial biomarker that indicates sepsis assessment in critically ill patients. A rapid, accurate, and portable analytical device for lactate detection is required. This work developed a stepwise polyurethane-polyaniline-m-phenylenediamine via a layer-by-layer based electrochemical biosensor, using a screen-printed gold electrode for lactate determination in blood samples. The developed lactate biosensor was electrochemically fabricated with layers of m-phenylenediamine, polyaniline, a crosslinking of a small amount of lactate oxidase via glutaraldehyde, and polyurethane as an outer membrane. The lactate determination using amperometry revealed the biosensor's performance with a wide linear range of 0.20-5.0 mmol L-1, a sensitivity of 12.17 ± 0.02 µA·mmol-1·L·cm-2, and a detection limit of 7.9 µmol L-1. The developed biosensor exhibited a fast response time of 5 s, high selectivity, excellent long-term storage stability over 10 weeks, and good reproducibility with 3.74% RSD. Additionally, the determination of lactate in human blood plasma using the developed lactate biosensor was examined. The results were in agreement with the enzymatic colorimetric gold standard method (p > 0.05). Our developed biosensor provides efficiency, reliability, and is a great potential tool for advancing lactate point-of-care testing applications in the early diagnosis of sepsis.

Natural Oleanolic Acid-Tailored Eutectogels Featuring Multienvironment Shape Memory Performance.

Shape memory gels, one of the primary modern smart materials, hold great promise in a myriad of applications spanning from soft robotics to medical devices. Nevertheless, most shape memory gels rely on water, organic solvents, and ionic liquids as dispersion mediums, posing the risks of freezing, dehydration, and toxicity to humans or environment. Herein, we have developed a thermoresponsive shape memory eutectogel by introducing an oleanolic acid-modified polyacrylamide network into a deep eutectic solvent (DES). The resulting eutectogel shows a fracture strength of 4.46 MPa along with elongation of 345%, Young's modulus of 14.83 MPa, and toughness of 9.51 MJ m-3. Thanks to the low freezing point and low volatility inherited from DES, this eutectogel possesses good antifreezing and long-term storage stability, which facilitate the shape memory behavior both in silicone oil and in air. The shape fixity and shape recovery ratios of this eutectogel maintain almost 90% during 10 cycles in silicone oil and more than 70% during four cycles in air that cannot be realized in hydrogels. By virtue of shape memory effect and conductivity, the eutectogel can be further used as a thermoswitch. This work presents a simple approach to fabricating shape memory eutectogels and imparts exciting prospects to smart eutectogels.

Long-term storage stability of incorporated hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) in biodiesel-diesel blends at highland and coastal areas

This paper reports an investigation on the long-term storage stability of high percentage and reformulated biodiesel-diesel blends for the success of renewable energy initiatives. This study mainly focuses on the Indonesian context, where the mandated B30 biodiesel faces stability and hygroscopicity challenges. A novel approach incorporated hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) to mitigate instability while increasing the biodiesel percentage and was analyzed during storage stability over six months in highland and coastal areas. A comprehensive analysis evaluates physicochemical properties, including water content, kinematic viscosity, total acid number, oxidation stability, and microbial growth. Based on the results, biodiesel-diesel blends (B30, B40, and B30D10) revealed robust stability and quality under highland and coastal conditions. Acid numbers exhibited a slight upward trend during storage but stayed within specified limits, emphasizing limited oxidative changes. Oxidation stability surpassed standard limits for blends, highlighting the blends' resistance to oxidation, even in higher concentrations. Water content increased over time, reflecting biodiesel's hygroscopic nature, but all blends met diesel fuel standards after 6 months. Furthermore, the investigation provided valuable insights into biodiesel-diesel blends' stability, quality, and potential enhancements, contributing to informed decision-making in fuel formulation and quality control.