Long-term Athlete Development Research Articles

Long-Term Athletic Development Special Topic Issue

Welcome to the Long-term Athletic Development (LTAD) special issue of Strength and Conditioning Journal. LTAD remains a “hot topic” within the strength and conditioning and health and fitness industries. The NSCA position statement on LTAD acknowledges that all youth, irrespective of their ages, abilities, or aspirations, should engage in LTAD programs, promote physical fitness and psychosocial wellbeing (1). Those working within the field of LTAD have a unique ability to positively influence the athletic development of talented young athletes, children engaged in recreational physical activity, or those youth who are physically inactive. The true bridging of science and practice will remain a point of speculation for some time. However, rather than debating whether it should be “evidence-based practice” or “practice-based evidence,” we should seek to facilitate a synergistic relationship between scientific enquiry and real-world application for the sake of the children and adolescents we work with. Indeed, the interaction between science and practice will always lead to better results than the sum of the individual parts. To that extent, a broad range of articles have been compiled in this LTAD special issue that provide scientific insights and practical strategies that readers can apply immediately within their programs. Faigenbaum et al. address the 9 “F-words” that highlight the sociological, physiological, and psychological correlates of youth physical activity that can help inform research and practice, whereas Van Hooren and De Ste Croix provide a critical appraisal questioning the existence of sensitive periods of training for children and adolescents. Kelly and Williams also provide a narrative review on talent identification and development processes with specific reference to youth soccer. Practitioners are often looking to develop their “coaching toolbox,” and Gebel et al. provide insights into training methodologies for developing balance, while Myburgh et al. offer practical solutions to make the most of session warm-ups. Radnor and colleagues present long-term strategies for developing athletic motor skill competencies in young athletes, which is complemented by the article from Morris et al. that examines approaches for the development of weightlifting ability. Cahill et al. also provide a critical review detailing how sled pushing and pulling can be effectively integrated into the programs of young athletes. The special issue also has articles that touch on some contemporary issues in LTAD. Scantlebury et al. provide a commentary on methods of navigating the complexities of load management in young athletes, whereas Hannon et al. present an overview of the nutritional recommendations for young athletes to supplement training, growth, and development. Read et al. propose “7 pillars” to help inform programming decisions to reduce injury risk in young athletes. It goes without saying that the strength of this special issue is salient on the quality of the authored articles. These pieces of work take time and effort to compose, and I would personally like to thank all lead authors and their authorship teams for their outstanding contributions. I also express my deepest gratitude to the Editor-in-Chief, Dr. Jeff Chander, for first entrusting and then encouraging me throughout the editorial process of this special issue. Thanks must go to the associate editors and reviewers who helped “fine tune” the articles and to Dr. Britt Chandler for his ongoing support as the managing editor. Finally, I thank all of you who work to inspire and prepare our young athletes for the future; keep up the great work!

Problematizing the Adoption and Implementation of Athlete Development ‘Models’: A Foucauldian-Inspired Analysis of the Long-Term Athlete Development Framework

The purpose of this paper is to problematize the continued adoption and implementation of Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) framework (Balyi et al., 2005; 2014) as an increasingly orthodox conception of the athlete development process and for underpinning and designing sport coaching practice. In adopting a post-structuralist, Foucauldian perspective and drawing upon empirical interview data with Balyi and colleagues, senior government officials and sport administrators, our analysis examines some of the potential limitations for adopting and implementing LTAD as a conception of the athlete development process. In particular, we highlight the potential issues and contradictions linked to adopting such conceptions, namely their (mis)use as mechanisms of social control (i.e. governmentality), delimiting the ability of athletes and sport practitioners to think otherwise (i.e. disciplining and docility), and the potential to marginalize alternative ways of thinking. We conclude with a discussion of the implications for managerial and coaching practice.

Taking A Long-Term Approach to the Development of Weightlifting Ability in Young Athletes

ABSTRACTDespite previous misconceptions, youth participation in weightlifting is now recognized as safe and beneficial when delivered, programed, and monitored by a qualified professional. This article explores teaching progressions to help coaches periodize weightlifting training for young or novice athletes, with consideration to the theoretical concepts underpinning long-term athletic development. It is hoped that the structured and progressive guidelines presented in the current article will help coaches develop the weightlifting performance of their young athletes in a safe and effective manner.

THE EARLY SPECIALIZATIONREQUIRING SPORT OF GYMNASTICS AND LONG-TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

Today, long-term athlete development programs are used as an alternative to traditional athlete training programs. They aim to make sport as a lifestyle, rather than compressing athlete development into a short period of time. In long-term athlete development programs, all processes are planned on the basis of the biological development periods of the athletes and their development characteristics in these periods, rather than their chronological age, which is taken as the basis in traditional athlete development methods. Sports branches are divided into two as early specialization and late specialization sports. Gymnastics requires skill, coordination, and a developed central nervous system; thus, it is categorized among the early specialization sports.

Developing Athletic Motor Skill Competencies in Youth

ABSTRACT Synergistic development of muscular strength and motor skill competency is central to long-term athletic development. However, these qualities need to be developed in a logical and progressive manner, and training methods need to be developmentally appropriate, engaging, and enjoyable for young athletes to help them build a positive association with strength and conditioning-based activities. This article aims to provide a resource for coaches to use when developing the athletic motor skill competencies in youth, including game-based activities, and a more structured resistance training curriculum.

The History of Coach Education in Flanders

From an international perspective, it is indispensable to shed light on the education and certification of sports coaches within different countries in order to exchange good practices and facilitate international collaboration. This article highlights the past, present and future of coach education in Flanders, Belgium. A historical overview of the main initiatives of public, private and academic partners and their shifting relationships with regard to coach education provides insight into the establishment of the current Flemish School for Coach Education, a unique cooperative association between the public government, private sports federations and academic institutes for physical education. Key elements of the Flemish coach education system are presented: mission, organisation and partnerships, framework, competence model, learning pathways/culture and quality assurance. Important future steps involve the transition from a linear framework to a context-specific and nonlinear alternative, based on long-term athlete and coach development models, rethinking coach competences for all programs and implementing a blended learner-based approach with more focus on unmediated, nonformal mediated and internal learning situations.

Anthropometric and Performance Parameters of Japanese High School American Football Players: A Case Study of Selection for International Matches

This study aimed to compare the anthropometric and performance parameters between American football players from different high school grades and to compare their physical characteristics to the normative values for U.S. and Japanese players from previous studies. The analysis included 240 grade 10 and 11 American football players. The testing included height, body mass, broad jump, 40-yard dash, and pro-agility shuttle. The analysis was stratified by position: linemen (offensive and defensive), big skill players (fullbacks, tight ends, and linebackers), and skill players (wide receivers, running backs, and defensive backs). The only between-grade difference was body mass for linemen (Cohen’s d>0.6), with no moderate effects for all other measured variables (|d| ≦0.6). No Japanese players were better in both mass and performance measures than U.S. elite high school players. The strength and conditioning program for long-term athlete development should be established for American football players in Japan.

Sensitive Periods to Train General Motor Abilities in Children and Adolescents: Do They Exist? A Critical Appraisal

ABSTRACT Some long-term athlete development models have proposed generic sensitive periods or “windows of opportunity” during childhood and adolescence that are optimal for training general motor abilities such as strength or speed. However, it remains unclear whether these periods exist. This review will therefore critically appraise the rationale behind generic sensitive periods. We discuss several issues with generic sensitive periods and argue that general motor abilities and the associated sensitive periods do not exist. The identified issues with generic sensitive periods question their validity and we therefore suggest that they should not be used to train youth athletes.

Seasonal Changes in the Physical Performance of Elite Youth Female Soccer Players.

Emmonds, S, Sawczuk, T, Scantlebury, S, Till, K, and Jones, B. Seasonal changes in the physical performance of elite youth female soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 34(9): 2636-2643, 2020-This study investigated the seasonal change in physical performance of 113 (Under 10: U10 [n = 20], U12 [n = 30], U14 [n = 31], and U16 [n = 32]) elite youth female soccer players. Players completed testing pre-, mid-, and post-season, including speed (10- and 30-m sprint), change of direction (CoD; 505 test), power (countermovement jump [CMJ]), strength (isometric midthigh pull), and aerobic capacity (Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 [YYIRL1]). A general linear model was used to evaluate the change in physical characteristics and the influence of covariates (baseline performance; change in maturity status) on each characteristic across the season. U10's speed and CoD performance decreased from pre-post season, whereas relative strength likely improved. U12's relative strength very likely improved; however, 10-m sprint performance decreased. Relative strength likely decreased, whereas 30-m sprint and CoD time very likely improved in U14's. U16's likely improved relative strength, CMJ, and 10-m sprint, and very likely improved 30-m sprint and CoD from pre-post season. U12-U16's improved YYIRL1 performance pre-post season. Strength and conditioning coaches working with U10-U12 players should look to develop speed, lower-body power, and CoD ability as part of structured strength and conditioning sessions as well as within warm-ups before pitch-based sessions. With U14-U16 players' manipulation of small-sided games combined with short-duration high-intensity running drills may provide an efficient training stimulus to develop the aerobic system while concurrently developing technical/tactical skills. Findings of this study provide a basis for the implementation of strategies to enhance the long-term athletic development of youth female soccer players.

A whole new ballgame: an analysis of the context and adoption of long-term athlete development in community sport

ABSTRACT Rationale/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the context for innovation and how it ultimately affected sport club decisions to adopt Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD). Design/methodology/approach: Interview and documentary data were gathered from Canadian sport clubs and provincial sport organizations implementing LTAD, an initiative intended to improve the quality of sport programs. Following a critical realist framework, a retroductive grounded theory approach was used to identify themes and structural mechanisms influencing club decisions to adopt. Findings: LTAD adoption generated internal conflict for clubs while creating opportunity for competition with rivals. Resource and institutional pressures both enabled and inhibited innovation. Clubs pursued innovation when resource controllers signaled that increased legitimacy would result. Clubs with capacity to adopt used LTAD as a means to maintain or improve their competitive position. Practical implications: Policies promoting community sport adoption of innovations to improve program quality may create thresholds allowing clubs with capacity to adopt the opportunity to out-perform or eliminate rivals. This may paradoxically result in increased costs and/or diminished access to sport for participants. Research Contribution: This provides new insight into how community sport clubs manage conflicting logics and compete through compliance with the policies of resource controllers. A contextual model of community sport club operation under conflicting logics is presented.

Effect Of Exercise Intervention On Physical Fitness Factors In Elementary School Children

Sports have been very popular after-school activities for children. It is quite likely that sports have a positive effect on child growth in many ways. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, and Technology of Japan has reported that the total scores of physical fitness tests differ greatly between those who exercise regularly and those who do not. However, it is not clear how exercise habits affect physical fitness factors during childhood. Such detailed knowledge would be useful in promoting long-term athlete development and improving physical fitness throughout life. PURPOSE: To explore the effect of exercise intervention on physical fitness factors in elementary school children. METHODS: The subjects of this study were 1,079 1st- to 6th-grade male elementary school students. A questionnaire survey was conducted to investigate the exercise and lifestyle habits and the results of physical fitness tests conducted at Japanese elementary schools. The existence or not of exercise habits after-school activities and the results of physical fitness tests were used for the analysis. The physical fitness test includes measurements of grip strength, sit-ups, sitting front stretches, side steps, twenty-meter shuttle run, fifty-meter run, standing long jump, softball throw, height, and weight. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between grades in the existence or not of exercise habits about height and weight. After the 3rd grade, children with exercise habits showed higher performance on sit-ups, side steps, the twenty-meter shuttle run, the fifty-meter run, and softball throw than children with no exercise habits. There was little difference in grip strength, sitting front stretches, and long jump between children with exercise habits and those without. CONCLUSION: Endurance, speed, and agility develop greatly in elementary school children who exercise regularly. However, exercise habits have little effect on single strength and power. In addition, differences between children with and without exercise habits are observed after the 3rd grade.

Physical Characteristics and the Talent Identification and Development Processes in Male Youth Soccer: A Narrative Review

ABSTRACT Talent identification and development in male youth soccer are complex and multidimensional processes. The English Football Association “4 Corner Model” is often adopted by academies to support coaches and practitioners to implement a multidisciplinary approach to their talent identification and development framework. This holistic approach is characterized by technical/tactical, psychological, social, and physical attributes, which are central to academy recruitment and individual long-term athlete development. The aim of this narrative review is to provide a critical synthesis of the physical characteristics within this model, which facilitate talent identification and development, namely physical performance, growth and maturation, and the relative age effect.

Isometric Strength in Volleyball Players of Different Age: A Multidimensional Model

Physical abilities modelling has a profound connection with long-term athlete development and talent identification. There is not enough data to support evidence about age-related changes in volleyball players’ isometric strength. This study aimed to define the age-related model of volleyball players multidimensional muscles’ contractile characteristics. The participants were divided according to gender (male n = 112, female n = 371) and according to age into four groups: under 15 (U15), under 17 (U17), under 19 (U19), and under 21 (U21) years old. Participants performed three isometric strength tests: handgrip, lumbar extensors, and ankle extensors. Maximal force and rate of force development results from all three tests were transformed into a single Score value as a representation of contractile potentials using principal component analysis. The main findings were that Score values of both genders showed significant differences between age groups (male: F = 53.17, p < 0.001; Female: F = 41.61, p < 0.001). Trends of those yearly changes were slightly more balanced for female subjects (3.9%) compared to male subjects (6.3%). These findings could help in strength training adjustments when working with volleyball players of a certain age, and enable coaches to detect ones that stand out positively, considering them as strong in regard to their age.

Swedish Tennis Coaches' Everyday Practices for Creating Athlete Development Environments.

Finding and describing the optimal path to elite athletic performance has, for a long time, been a challenge for researchers. This study examined Swedish tennis coaches’ everyday practices for creating athlete development environments and the environmental factors that promote or hinder athlete development. The study was conducted in 2018–2019 and included in-depth focus groups with 13 Swedish full-time tennis coaches. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis and by drawing on models for studying athlete development environments. The results highlight how the coaches’ everyday work involves a range of administrative tasks, which ultimately means that there is little to no time left for focusing on athlete development. These results also draw attention to concerns about these professional coaches’ health, with increasing demands in their roles to manage administrative tasks in addition to the coaching and time spent on the court with their athletes. The results further reveal how the tennis clubs’ boards are increasingly interested in sound economy and high participation levels rather than focusing on performance outcomes and developing elite athletes. Finally, the results from this study emphasize the importance of increased collaboration and communication between clubs, coaches, regions, and the national association to create common and clearer guidelines for long-term athlete development. Future studies could engage in longitudinal and ethnographic work with tennis clubs of varying size and geographical locations, involving different stakeholders (e.g., coaches, management, parents, players) in order to further explore the environmental factors that promote or hinder athlete development.

PHYSICAL CONDITIONING OF TEENAGERS IN DIFFERENT KIND OF SPORTS

Physical conditioning is crucial in building motion skills if the coach wants to ensure long-term athletic development. The essence is that physical conditioning needs to be developed before the development of technical skills of sports movements at a much higher intensity at each stage of the multi-annual training process. The adult competition system and training programs are being imposed on young athletes, so the essential motion skills are not being learned (Grāvītis @ Luika, 2015). The lack of physical conditioning in teenage years is very often reflected in the most inappropriate moments of an athlete's career, at the elite level. Insufficient physical conditioning is a reason for the instability of motion skills and injuries in extreme physical and psychological loads. The amount of physical activity can be measured as a step count. The aim of the research is to assess physical fitness rate for children practicing basketball, football or ice hockey with EUROFIT test battery. The study included boys, 100 basketball players, 100 soccer players and 100 ice hockey players from Latvia who were born in 2002 and started training in their sport during at the ages from 7 to 9, collected data of their conditioning for five years, divided into three age groups. According to EUROFIT tests, it was concluded that the ice hockey players have the highest physical conditioning rates according to EUROFIT standard from the athletes analyzed, and the basketball players have the lowest physical conditioning rates in EUROFIT tests from the athletes analyzed. We can conclude that the results of hockey players are higher than the scores of basketball and soccer players because ice hockey players practice more frequently, and dryland training is strictly organized, they develop all motor abilities that is needed for successive training in basic drills on ice.

Developmental fitness curves: assessing sprint acceleration relative to age and maturity status in elite junior tennis players

Background The influence of maturity-status on athletic performance is reasonably well-documented. Methodological and practical issues of assessment and lack of longitudinal data have impacted the success of various models. Aim To develop age- and sex-specific developmental curves for sprint acceleration in elite youth tennis players and to address variation in performance relative to chronological and biological age. Subjects and methods Measures of acceleration were available for 3120 elite youth tennis players aged 8–15 years attending National and Regional Talent Identification days. Variation in acceleration by chronological and estimated biological ages was evaluated in corresponding data for an independent sample of elite youth players 8.9 to 15.1 years of age. Results Acceleration varied as a function of chronological and biological age relative to developmental curves. Early maturing males and females had significantly poorer performances when acceleration was considered relative to biological age. Significant discrepancy in percentiles relative to biological versus chronological ages was also evident between early and late maturing players of each sex. Conclusion Evaluating performance relative to developmental curves and maturity status may be a practical means of monitoring long-term athlete development in tennis.

A Coaching Session Framework to Facilitate Long-Term Athletic Development

ABSTRACT The implementation of long-term athletic development (LTAD) aims to improve health, physical activity, and performance of all youth. Contemporary LTAD models suggest that a broad range of physical and psychosocial competencies should be developed in youth, but few resources are available for coaches that describe “how” to achieve these outcomes. This article overviews a coaching session framework built around the following components: raise, activate, mobilize, prepare, activity, games, evaluate (RAMPAGE). The framework provides practitioners with information on what can be planned and delivered and when within a coaching session, across multiple ages and stages of development within multiple contexts (e.g., physical education and talent development).

Evaluasi Konteks Program Pembinaan Prestasi Cabang Olahraga Hockey di Jawa Timur

This study aims to analyze the context of long-term athlete development program in East Java hockey. The method used is the CIPP evaluation model. The research subjects are members of Hockey Indonesia in East Java Province. Data were collected using questionnaires and interviews. Data analysis techniques used descriptive qualitative. Evaluation results in policy-related contexts indicate that the subject of research receives national and local support. Also funding support is different from each other. Working closely with the university in terms of sport science and corporate to get sponsors is expected to improve the performance of research subjects in implementing high performance programs.

Within-sport specialisation and entry age as predictors of success among age group swimmers

ABSTRACT Early specialisation versus early diversification in long-term athlete development remains controversial. Although several parameters of sport specialisation have already been explored, this study investigates within-sport specialisation in the careers of young swimmers. In this cohort study, the number of strokes, events and distance categories during childhood and adolescence, as well as entry age were analysed to find potential correlations with success at age 18. Also, national team members were compared to non-members within this cohort. The number of events, strokes or distance categories at a younger age showed a moderate correlation to the best FINA point score at the age of 18, i.e. the greater the diversification, the greater the performance at age 18. The number of events, strokes or distance categories however, showed a stronger correlation when comparing national team members with the non-members. Most of the observed athletes were more likely to have high FINA points at 18 if they had been listed in the top 100 at 11 years of age. Entry age had a strong negative correlation with the FINA point score at 18, i.e. the younger the athlete when entering the top 100, the higher the FINA point score at 18. When national team members were compared to non-national team members, early age of entry into the top 100 showed a greater impact on the national team members. However, being listed in more than one stroke as a child correlates well with success at age 18.

Understanding the adoption of long-term athlete development in one community sport club

ABSTRACTRationale/Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate the adoption of long-term athlete development in one community sport club in order to advance understanding of its actual uptake and the conditions, barriers, and facilitators that influence its adoption at the community level.Design/methodology/approach: A policy implementation framework incorporating a translation perspective was used to investigate the uptake of LTAD and related principles at the community level. An instrumental case study involving interviews with club administrators and coaches was conducted.Findings: Findings revealed that the club had limited awareness of LTAD yet was undertaking long-term athlete development initiatives on its own in response to the needs and conditions of the club and its community. Communication with stakeholders, several club characteristics, and economic, political, and social/cultural conditions were found to either facilitate or inhibit the adoption of LTAD.Practical Implications: This study draws attention to the fragmented communication system present in the Canadian sport system, and highlights the importance of consulting with community sport clubs in the development and implementation of nationallydeveloped policy.Research Contribution: Gaining the perspective of club administrators and coaches who are responsible for the strategic direction and programing of the club highlights the importance of examining those perspectives with regards to policy implementation.