London Protocol Research Articles

Legitimate Scientific Research: Objective Scientific Assessment of Marine Geoengineering Activities under the London Convention and London Protocol

Legitimate Scientific Research: Objective Scientific Assessment of Marine Geoengineering Activities under the London Convention and London Protocol

The Development and Administration of the London Convention and Protocol: ‘Two Instruments, One Family’ and Their Link to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

The Development and Administration of the London Convention and Protocol: ‘Two Instruments, One Family’ and Their Link to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

The London Convention and Protocol: Adapting to Address the Ocean-Climate Crisis

The London Convention and Protocol: Adapting to Address the Ocean-Climate Crisis

Main current legal and regulatory frameworks for carbon dioxide capture, transport, and storage in the European Economic Area

There is broad consensus on the key role that carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, transport, and storage (CCTS) systems will play in mitigating climate change, either by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently or by avoiding CO2 emissions generated by point sources, especially from hard-to-abate sectors (e.g., waste-to-energy, cement, shipping or aviation). Although CCTS is ready to be implemented from a technical standpoint, the legal and regulatory framework required for its implementation and regulation could be further improved. In this article, we summarize and critically discuss the provisions of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (the ‘OSPAR Convention’), and of the London protocol, as well as of the European CCS and ETS Directives. With a focus on the European Economic Area, we highlight existing gaps and hurdles that should be tackled in view of the large-scale deployment of CCTS. Furthermore, as the legal landscape for CO2 transport and geological storage is evolving rapidly, we provide an overview of recent clarifications on aspects of the existing legislation and a summary of new proposals presented by the European Commission in this space.

London Protocol under water-perfused HRM in a healthy population, towards novel 3D manometric parameters in an evaluation of anorectal functional disorders

Background/AimLondon Protocol (LP) and Classification allied to high-resolution manometry (HRM) technological evolution has updated and enhanced the diagnostic armamentarium in anorectal disorders. This study aims to evaluate LP reproducibility under water-perfused HRM, provide normal data and new parameters based on 3D and healthy comparison studies under perfusional HRM.MethodsFifty healthy (25 F) underwent water-perfused 36 channel HRM based on LP at resting, squeeze, cough, push, and rectal sensory. Additional 3D manometric parameters were: pressure-volume (PV) 104mmHg2.cm (resting, short and long squeeze, cough); highest and lowest pressure asymmetry (resting, short squeeze, and cough). Complementary parameters (CP) were: resting (mean pressure, functional anal canal length); short squeeze (mean and maximum absolute squeeze pressure), endurance (fatigue rate, fatigue rate index, capacity to sustain); cough (anorectal gradient pressure); push (rectum-anal gradient pressure, anal canal relaxation percent); recto-anal inhibitory reflex (anal canal relaxation percent).ResultsNo difference to genders: resting (LP, CP, and 3D); short squeeze (highest pressure asymmetry); endurance (CP); cough (CP, highest and lowest pressure asymmetry); push (gradient pressure); rectal sensory. Higher pressure in men: short squeeze (maximum incremental, absolute, and mean pressure, PV, lowest pressure asymmetry); long squeeze (PV); cough (anal canal and rectum maximum pressure, anal canal PV); push (anal canal and rectum maximum pressure). Anal canal relaxation was higher in women (push).ConclusionsLP reproducibility is feasible under water-perfused HRM, and comparative studies could bring similarity to dataset expansion. Novel 3D parameters need further studies with healthy and larger data to be validated and for disease comparisons.Key points• London Protocol and Classification allied with the technological evolution of HRM (software and probes) has refined the diagnostic armamentarium in anorectal disorders.• Novel 3D and deepening the analysis of manometric parameters before the London Classification as a contributory diagnostic tool.• Comparison of healthy volunteers according to the London Protocol under a perfusional high-resolution system could establish equivalence points.

Addressing Space Tourism’s Environmental Effects: Marine Environment Regulations as a Basis for Regulating Orbital Space Debris

With the success of private suborbital space flight, the space industry is now facing unprecedented growth as billionaires strive to accomplish the task of sending astrotourists into space. However, given the novelty of this objective, the current domestic and international legal regimes governing outer space and space travel are both confusing and outdated, and thus, they have not adequately accounted for space tourism activities. Given the projected growth of this industry, detrimental and dangerous environmental effects—such as an increase in orbital space debris—have become a pressing concern. These effects will not only affect the global climate on Earth but will likely pose additional obstacles to future space travel by cluttering the Earth’s stratosphere. Therefore, this comment proposes a new international regulatory framework based on the London Protocol and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea—two instances of international cooperation protecting the marine environment—in order to regulate the environmental effects stemming from space tourism activities.

Understanding the causes of preventable medication incidents for patients with mental illness in primary care

Abstract Introduction A recent scoping review has highlighted that whilst patients with mental illness are commonly affected by medication errors and preventable adverse drug events in primary care, there were limited data regarding their causes1. By understanding why these preventable events occur, targeted interventions can be developed. Aim To understand the nature and contributory factors that lead to medication errors and preventable adverse drug events amongst patients with mental illness in primary care. Methods This study used a qualitative design. A researcher remotely interviewed 26 healthcare professionals (14 pharmacists, 5 GPs, 5 nurses, 2 psychiatrists) working in primary care between June-November 2022, guided by the critical incident technique. Professionals were recruited via social media, research team networks, and snowballing. Data were analysed using the framework method and any data that involved speculation as to the causes of errors was not included. The data were organised into themes based on the London protocol error framework, which describes the contributory factors leading to care delivery problems2. Themes generated were validated by other members of the research team and a patient advisory group. This study was approved by the University of Manchester Ethics Committee 1 (reference 2022-13735-23555). Results Forty-three medication errors and twelve preventable adverse drug events were discussed during interview. Prescribing errors were discussed most commonly (n=24) and administration errors least commonly (n=4). Six contributory factors were identified which were: the individual (staff) (n=37); the work environment (n=31); the teams/interfaces (n=28); the organisation and management (n=24); the patient (n=23); and the task and technology (n=15). Primary care clinicians reported a lack of knowledge regarding psychotropics and mental illness which accompanied diffusion of responsibility. The responsibilities of staff were also confused by limited clinical information communicated between teams and across care interfaces. Service demand was reported to exceed capacity, creating stress for the staff, as well as limiting the time available for staff to undergo training. Complicated patient lifestyles and behavioural challenges were reported as unique contributory factors. Discussion/Conclusion Lack of knowledge amongst primary care clinicians regarding psychotropics and mental illness was a key issue. This was exacerbated by a mental health service structure placing considerable pressure on primary care leaving clinicians to support patients with needs perceived to be outside their areas of confidence and competence. There is a need to support this workforce by upskilling them to effectively manage patients by addressing the educational needs regarding neuropharmacology and communication skills. These changes may have a positive effect in reducing error rates for this patient group in primary care. Study limitations include recall bias, social desirability bias, as well as the majority errors discussed were made by another clinician within a chain therefore critical details may be missing in the series of events. This is the first study to identify the nature and contributory factors of preventable medication incidents for patients with mental illness in primary care. Future research should focus on exploring this topic from the perspective of patients to better understand the causes of preventable medication incidents.

Exploring the challenges faced by foundation doctors when prescribing high risk medicines safely during the on-call period: A qualitative study.

Errors with prescribing high-risk medicines (HRMs) have a greater propensity to cause harm than with non-HRMs. Prescribing errors arise due to multiple factors and it can be particularly challenging for junior doctors to prescribe safely during the on-call period. Knowledge regarding the challenges of prescribing HRM during the on-call period would be useful to target preventative interventions. The aim of this study was to explore the challenges encountered by foundation doctors (doctors who have graduated medical school within the last 2 years) when prescribing specific HRMs (anticoagulants, insulin and opioids) safely during the on-call period. Six focus groups exploring the challenges of prescribing HRMs safely during the on-call period were conducted, 3 with foundation year 1 and 3 with foundation year 2 doctors from across 3 different hospitals. A thematic framework analysis based on the London Protocol was conducted. Doctors described multiple challenges to prescribing HRMs safely during the on-call period including a lack of prescribing support, nursing pressure, complex prescribing tasks, unknown patients as well as individual factors such as lack of knowledge and tiredness. Many of these factors exist to some extent during the day, yet the nature of the on-call period as a fast-paced environment heightened the challenges that prescribers faced. There are multiple challenges experienced by foundation doctors when prescribing HRMs during the on-call period. The potentially devastating consequences of errors with HRMs means that closer attention and more concern from healthcare professionals, researchers and policymakers is required to improve safe prescribing of HRMs in hospitals.

Investigating the impact of London’s ultra low emission zone on children’s health: children’s health in London and Luton (CHILL) protocol for a prospective parallel cohort study

BackgroundAir pollution harms health across the life course. Children are at particular risk of adverse effects during development, which may impact on health in later life. Interventions that improve air quality are urgently needed both to improve public health now, and prevent longer-term increased vulnerability to chronic disease. Low Emission Zones are a public health policy intervention aimed at reducing traffic-derived contributions to urban air pollution, but evidence that they deliver health benefits is lacking. We describe a natural experiment study (CHILL: Children’s Health in London and Luton) to evaluate the impacts of the introduction of London’s Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) on children’s health.MethodsCHILL is a prospective two-arm parallel longitudinal cohort study recruiting children at age 6–9 years from primary schools in Central London (the focus of the first phase of the ULEZ) and Luton (a comparator site), with the primary outcome being the impact of changes in annual air pollutant exposures (nitrogen oxides [NOx], nitrogen dioxide [NO2], particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5micrograms [PM2.5], and less than 10 micrograms [PM10]) across the two sites on lung function growth, measured as post-bronchodilator forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) over five years. Secondary outcomes include physical activity, cognitive development, mental health, quality of life, health inequalities, and a range of respiratory and health economic data.DiscussionCHILL’s prospective parallel cohort design will enable robust conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of the ULEZ at improving air quality and delivering improvements in children’s respiratory health. With increasing proportions of the world’s population now living in large urban areas exceeding World Health Organisation air pollution limit guidelines, our study findings will have important implications for the design and implementation of Low Emission and Clean Air Zones in the UK, and worldwide.ClinicalTrials.govNCT04695093 (05/01/2021).

The Helsinki Convention – a legal obstacle for carbon storage in the Baltic Sea?

The Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area – also known as the Helsinki Convention – was originally signed in 1974 by all Baltic Sea coastal countries, seeking to address the increasing environmental challenges from industrialisation and other human activities and that were having a severe impact on the marine environment. It entered into force on 3 May 1980. The Convention includes the protection of the Baltic Sea from all sources of pollution from land, air and sea. The Helsinki Convention was updated in 1992 to take into account the geopolitical changes and emerging environmental challenges in the region and was extended to ten Contracting Parties, including the European Union. The updated Helsinki Convention of 1992 entered into force on 17 January 2000.According to the articles in the Helsinki Convention [1] dumping in the Baltic Sea is generally forbidden. Carbon storage can be seen as dumping when regarding it as “deliberate disposal at sea or into the seabed of wastes or other matter” (article 2.4 a (i)). If there is not an applicable exemption (article 2.4 b – not seen as dumping, or 11.4 – exception from prohibition due to that safety of human life is threatened, or 29 – prohibition not applicable due to the relation to other Conventions) carbon storage then is forbidden (article 11.1), and that prohibition shall be implemented in national law through its national authorities (article 4.2).There is though a common interest among several countries around the Baltic Sea to be able to store carbon in the Baltic Sea in the future, in order to reduce CO2 emissions and reach the common climate goals. For example, Sweden is right now, through its authority Geological Survey of Sweden, investigating the possibility of storing carbon within Swedish territory in the Baltic Sea.Therefore, there is also a discussion among the countries who have signed the Helsinki Convention about how to go forward making sure carbon storage is in agreement with the Convention. One way could be to look at how this problem was dealt with in the London Protocol – 1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 (see article 4.1, and Annex I 1.8 and 4) [2], where carbon dioxide was added to the list of matter that may be considered for dumping if certain conditions are being met (disposal into a sub-seabed geological formation, consisting overwhelmingly of carbon dioxide, no wastes or other matter are added for the purpose of disposing of those wastes or other matter).

The Republic of Korea’s experience with an ocean dumping management system to enhance compliance with the London Protocol: highlights of major institutional history over 40 years

Since the late 1980s, in efforts to reduce the burden of waste treatment on land and to protect the nation’s rivers, the Korean government has licensed dumping at sea only for waste difficult to treat on land. However, owing to the “not in my backyard” (NIMBY) phenomenon and the higher cost of land-based treatment, the amount of ocean-dumped waste has increased rapidly. The categories of waste dumped have also expanded to include sewage sludge containing highly concentrated hazardous substances, raising concerns about damage to the marine environment. The Korean Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries has noted that compliance with the London Protocol could be essential for limiting ocean dumping activities. The Republic of Korea enacted comprehensive measures to ensure compliance and formally acceded to the London Protocol in 2009. This paper presents Korea’s implementation of the criteria that led to the cessation of ocean dumping of sewage sludge in 2016.

Guest Editorial: Is CO2 Removal Technology Key to a Sustainable Future?

_ The urgent need to address climate change has unleashed a wave of innovative ideas on how to mitigate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that are driving the problem. Among the approaches considered to hold great promise is carbon dioxide removal, or what some call negative emissions technologies. These strategies have attracted significant attention in recent years and involve removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and storing it in long-term sinks such as oceans, forests, and underground geological formations. What follows is a closer look at how these strategies work, their potential to address the global climate crisis, and the challenges they currently face. Direct Air Capture (DAC) This technology captures CO2 directly from the air using chemical reactions and/or physical processes. The captured CO2 can then be stored in a long-term sink, used for food processing and cement manufacturing, or combined with hydrogen to create synthetic fuel. There are currently about 20 direct air capture plants operating worldwide. Climeworks’ Orca plant in Iceland, the largest operating DAC plant in the world, has the capacity to remove 4,000 tons of CO2 per year and store it deep underground. The majority of commercial direct air carbon capture techniques utilize large fans to force ambient air through a filter, with a liquid solvent, often amine-based or caustic, being used to absorb CO2 from the gas. There are three chemical processes that are being studied extensively for purposes of DAC: causticization using alkali and alkali-earth hydroxides, carbonation, and organic-inorganic hybrid sorbents consisting of amines supported in porous adsorbents. Additionally, others are exploring membrane separation methods based on semipermeable membranes to capture CO2, which require less water and a smaller footprint. Perhaps the biggest challenge facing this technology’s ability to scale up lies in its ability to be economically successful given current carbon credit pricing regimes balanced with the unknown amount of energy DAC units will need to achieve meaningful capture volumes. Ocean Fertilization The aim of ocean fertilization (OF) strategies is to enhance certain biological processes in the oceans that will lead to increased uptake of atmospheric CO2 followed by permanent storage in deep oceanic layers. The technique involves the addition of nutrients such as iron, phosphorus, and nitrogen to the ocean for stimulating the growth of phytoplankton that absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. When the marine species die, they sink to the ocean floor, taking the absorbed CO2 with them, where it is stored permanently. However, the implementation of OF has not been thoroughly studied and there are limited long-term experiments. Additionally, certain OF storage approaches are subject to reversibility. In other words, the stored carbon may not remain sequestered permanently and could be released back into the atmosphere due to the constant changes in ocean conditions such as temperature or nutrient availability. This issue highlights the need for caution and thorough study before implementing OF as a carbon dioxide removal strategy. The Convention on Biological Diversity and the London Protocol have called for appropriate regulations and assessments of risks and impacts related to climate-related geoengineering and OF.

Understanding medication safety involving patient transfer from intensive care to hospital ward: a qualitative sociotechnical factor study

ObjectiveTo understand the sociotechnical factors affecting medication safety when intensive care patients are transferred to a hospital ward. Consideration of these medication safety factors would provide a theoretical basis, on...

Qualitative study of district health board inquiries into mental health related homicide in a New Zealand sample

The aim of this study is to identify the methods and content of hospital-based serious incident reviews involving mental health related homicide where a service user was the perpetrator between 2007 and 2017. Eleven reports were obtained from mental health services in New Zealand’s largest city and thematically analysed. Nine used the London protocol to identify clinical and system factors that may have contributed to the serious incident, but there was considerable variation in the way in which it was applied. Feedback to services was inconsistent. The voices of family members of the victims were largely absent and consideration of cultural context was missing. A structured protocol to specifically address the mental health context in New Zealand and internationally could resolve some of these issues and lead to a process that is more likely to provide comprehensive coverage of relevant matters and produce clear recommendations to effect improvements to services.

Value Stream Mapping applied to information management in infection control

Infection control teams collect and produce information on epidemiologic surveillance for prevention of Healthcare Associated Infections (HAIs). Value Stream Mapping (VSM) is a Lean method for developing process through flow efficiency. The aim of the study was to use VSM to identify opportunities for improvement in the infection control department. Flow of information and infection control activities were reviewed using VSM and a questionnaire, where time required for each task was measured. The actual VSM went through multidisciplinary analysis and an ideal VSM was created without considering resource limits. The ideal VSM was reviewed to identify the improvements easily implemented and the ones that would require more time or resources. The actual VSM analysis addressed work overload for Key Performance Indicators (KPI) production, data management (fragmentation, access and redundant work, storage, time between tasks, time typing) and tasks performed retrospectively, when less information is available and with no opportunity to correct protocol deviation. The implementation of the ideal VSM provided a faster and more efficient HAIs analysis, London protocol for HAI cases and surgical prophylaxis evaluation became real time tasks, and all surgical surveillance was improved. A mobile app was proposed as an intervention and became a long-term project. If completely implemented, the ideal VSM would result in 15.7 less work hours/month, having the working time optimized for patient care. VSM is an important tool for epidemiologic surveillance in infection control allowing better data management, continuous workflow, and new information production with potentially fewer work hours.

SHIPBREAKING IN PAKISTAN – THE NEED FOR ALIGNING WITH GLOBAL INSTRUMENTS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Pakistan has been the largest shipbreaking country during the 1980s and is presently among three of the largest shipbreaking countries in the world; however, shipbreaking through the beaching method has so far not been properly regulated and is evident from several incidents from time to time taken place as a result of sheer lack of consideration for health & safety of the workers and the coastal environment. Toxins in the ship’s structure are harmful residue and are extremely dangerous to natural resources and employee wellness. Notwithstanding, it is volatile in terms of adding its share to the economic growth by providing opportunities to employ and supply solid iron steel to the rolling mills to meet the demand of the country’s construction sector. Environmentalists have shown their concerns, especially over countries to the global south where the beaching method is popular for breaking down obsolete vessels. Several global instruments have been introduced to curtail bad practices bringing about environmental and health issues. It will be assessed whether existing local instruments in Pakistan are responding to these issues effectively or whether there is a need for introducing more regulations, especially sector-specific, to align the viable sector according to global regulations to be able to get the share by competing with regional competitors like India and Bangladesh.
 Although in one form or another, there have been efforts on a global level to address the environmental, health, and safety issues, as several such conventions about it have taken place since 1907. The “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea” (UNCLOS), the London Dumping Convention and Protocol and the World Charter for Nature. A Preservation of the Ozone Layer at the Vienna Convention on, Transboundary transfer of hazardous wastes, in particular from industrialised nations to poor or less developed countries, was prohibited under the Montreal Protocol until the Basel Convention under the United Nations Environment Program (to which Pakistan is a member) went into force in 1992. In 2002, technical rules were adopted for the ecologically responsible handling of ships’ complete and partial disassembly. In 2009, the International Maritime Organization established the Hong Kong Convention to address environmental dangers and worker safety and health., while decommissioning the ship, but so far, these global instruments in Pakistan have not been inducted in the procedures through local regulations; therefore, this study investigates industry viability on efficient administration and adherence to international law instruments being introduced by European Union Regulations and Hong Kong Convention, in an attempt to overcome the shortfall of earlier regulations under United Nations agencies. The effective implementation of existing local laws and making of sector-specific rules and regulations is highly desirable to respond to the earliest compliance gaps on the safe and environmentally sound dismantling of uneconomical ships. An analysis of the consistency of State legislation to respond to international legal instruments is recommended for the sustainable development of the ship-breaking industry in Pakistan.

이산화탄소 수출입과 입법과제

On October 28, 2020, Korea announced a 2050 carbon neutral plan, and on December 7 and 15, the “2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy”, “2050 Long-Term Low Carbon Development Strategy (LEDS), and ”2030 National Greenhouse Gas Reduction Target (NDC)“ were finalized, and in May 2021, the ”2050 Carbon Neutrality Commission“ was established directly under the president. In the ”2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy,“ Korea noted that ”Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) technology (hereinafter referred to as “CCUS technology”) can reduce large-scale carbon dioxide emitted from fossil fuels in developing technologies that can lay the foundation for a carbon-neutral society. At that time, on June 15, 2021, the government proposed a roadmap for technological innovation of carbon dioxide capture and utilization (CCU) as a cooperation between related ministries. As such, carbon dioxide is not just a substance subject to reduction, but the treatment of carbon dioxide, which is inevitable to be emitted, has resulted in creating economic value through CCUS technology. For example, it has secured commercial-scale coal power generation applicable technology due to long-term demonstration of coal power generation collection facilities. In terms of storage, it is the world's third successful injection of underground carbon dioxide. In March, the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, announced in a joint press release, “We accepted the revision of the London Protocol to export carbon dioxide streams through the improvement of the system using overseas marine storage.” In line with these changes, South Korea needs to prepare international transactions and transportation systems. Therefore, this study aims to examine what legislative challenges Korea faces in relation to carbon dioxide imports and exports and how to cope with relations with other countries.

이산화탄소 수출입과 입법과제

On October 28, 2020, Korea announced a 2050 carbon neutral plan, and on December 7 and 15, the “2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy”, “2050 Long-Term Low Carbon Development Strategy (LEDS), and ”2030 National Greenhouse Gas Reduction Target (NDC)“ were finalized, and in May 2021, the ”2050 Carbon Neutrality Commission“ was established directly under the president. In the ”2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy,“ Korea noted that ”Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) technology (hereinafter referred to as “CCUS technology”) can reduce large-scale carbon dioxide emitted from fossil fuels in developing technologies that can lay the foundation for a carbon-neutral society. At that time, on June 15, 2021, the government proposed a roadmap for technological innovation of carbon dioxide capture and utilization (CCU) as a cooperation between related ministries. As such, carbon dioxide is not just a substance subject to reduction, but the treatment of carbon dioxide, which is inevitable to be emitted, has resulted in creating economic value through CCUS technology. For example, it has secured commercial-scale coal power generation applicable technology due to long-term demonstration of coal power generation collection facilities. In terms of storage, it is the world's third successful injection of underground carbon dioxide. In March, the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, announced in a joint press release, “We accepted the revision of the London Protocol to export carbon dioxide streams through the improvement of the system using overseas marine storage.” In line with these changes, South Korea needs to prepare international transactions and transportation systems. Therefore, this study aims to examine what legislative challenges Korea faces in relation to carbon dioxide imports and exports and how to cope with relations with other countries.

How to Achieve Sustainably Beneficial Uses of Marine Sediments in Colombia?

Marine sediments may easily accumulate contaminants, posing a high risk to human health and biota. Beneficial use applications exist for natural sediments and sediments contaminated with organic and inorganic pollutants. In this research, the term marine sediments (MSs) was used to refer to all marine sediments, which could be clean, natural marine sediments, as well as contaminated marine sediments and dredged materials, as the main focus of this research. Sediment remediation often involves costly and time-consuming processes. Assessment frameworks are essential for selecting suitable remediation alternatives for MSs. This research aims to provide regulatory frameworks for the sustainable beneficial use of all marine sediments. No studies have been reported on this issue in Colombia until now. The current states of marine sediments on the Colombian Caribbean Coast were mainly investigated. Concentrations of specific harmful heavy metals (HHMs) in Colombia’s sediments were higher than the environmental standards of various nations. Ex situ remediation technologies were evaluated through cost–benefit analysis and environmental feasibility to be adopted in Colombia. The results identified solidification/stabilization (S/S) as promising technologies. Sustainable remediation of MSs may offer ample opportunities for environmental enhancement and economic benefits. Continuous research and adopting appropriate environmental regulations, such as the London Protocol 1996, would contribute to effectively managing all marine sediments in Colombia. More innovative and cost-effective remediation technologies with beneficial uses would still be needed. Decision makers may use the proposed frameworks to select optimal remediation alternatives and implement sustainable MSs management by achieving their beneficial uses.

Bio-CCS as a policy measure to achieve climate goals – the pioneering support scheme in Sweden

By 2045, Sweden is to have zero net emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. After 2045, Sweden should achieve negative emissions. To accomplish this, the use of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (bio-CCS) will be important. Sweden should aim to capture and store two million tonnes of biogenic carbon dioxide per year by 2030. However, the feasible potential for bio-CCS in Sweden amounts to at least 10 million tonnes of biogenic carbon dioxide per year in a 2045 perspective. To support the development and deployment of CCS the Swedish energy Agency has been given two governmental assignments.1. The first task/assignment, given in December 2020, was to establish a national centre for CCS. This task entails planning, coordination and promotion of CCS throughout the country. The Swedish Energy Agency will carry out its work in dialogue with both national and international stakeholders: industries, academia, governmental authorities and the Government Offices of Sweden. The present tasks for the centre are to implement a support system for bio-CCS and ensure that it is line with international conventions, such as the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and its moratorium on geo-engineering, and the London Convention and the London Protocol. The centre is also working with questions related to the accounting and reporting of negative carbon dioxide emissions in relation to national and international climate goals as well as following the emergence of a carbon market – voluntary and/or regulated – for negative emissions.2. The second assignment was to roll-out the support system earlier proposed by the agency. The Swedish Energy Agency has concluded that a reverse action as the most cost-effective support system as well as to be compatible with EU state aid rules. The support system for bio-CCS has a budget framework of 3.6 billion €. A reverse auction means that, for example, a pulp and paper industry or a combined heat and power plant can submit a bid on how much carbon dioxide they can capture and store, and at what cost. The one who can deliver bio-CCS according to the stipulated requirements at the lowest cost, wins the auction. The Swedish Energy Agency hope to launch the first round of auction in 2023 and have the first storage of Swedish captured carbon dioxide taking place in 2026.Other countries can use Sweden’s knowledge and experiences when implementing bio-CCS. Exchanging knowledge, experiences and ideas with other countries are important to achieve large-scale deployment of bio-CCS in the Nordic-Baltic region and net-zero emissions in 2045.