Lockdown Period Research Articles

Improvement of Air Quality During Lockdown Period of COVID-19 Pandemic in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

The Kathmandu Valley is currently Nepal's most hazardous region for human health and environmental sustainability because of increased air pollution and high particulate matter levels. According to multiple studies and observations, Nepal's urban districts saw an improvement in air quality during the COVID-19 lockdown. The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a standard method of informing the public about air pollution levels. The AQI is based on the quantitative value of pollutants' constituent parts, such as particulate matter (PM). Thus, the focus of this study was on how the AQI values change in the Ratna Park suburb of the Kathmandu district in the Kathmandu Valley and how those fluctuations are related to lockdown and non-lockdown times during the COVID-19 pandemic and comparing them to identify crucial information’s. This study shows that during the lockdown, the air quality in the Kathmandu Valley dramatically improved, with average AQI values for PM2.5 and PM10 rising to 21.34 and 64.42 from 50.74 and 106.51, respectively. Furthermore, we investigate the positive correlation between relative humidity, a meteorological component, and air quality.

Assessing the nonlinearity of wintertime PM2.5 formation in response to precursor emission changes in North China with the adjoint method

Abstract While China’s clean air actions implemented since 2013 have been effective in mitigating PM2.5 air pollution, the large emission reductions during the COVID-19 lockdown period in early 2020 did not similarly alleviate PM2.5 pollution in North China, reflecting a distinct nonlinear chemical response of PM2.5 formation to emission changes. Here we apply emission-concentration relationships for PM2.5 diagnosed using the adjoint approach to quantitatively assess how chemical nonlinearity affects PM2.5 over Beijing in February 2020 in response to two emission reduction scenarios: the COVID-19 lockdown and 2013–2017 emission controls. We find that, in the absence of chemical nonlinearity, the COVID-19 lockdown would decrease PM2.5 in Beijing by 17.9 μg m–3, and the 2013–2017 emission controls resulted in a larger decrease of 54.2 μg m–3 because of greater reductions of SO2 and primary aerosol emissions. Chemical nonlinearity offset the decrease for Beijing PM2.5 by 3.4 μg m–3 during the lockdown due to enhanced sensitivity of aerosol nitrate to NO x emissions, but enhanced the efficiency of 2013–2017 emission controls by 11.9 μg m–3 due to the weakened heterogeneous reaction of sulfate. Such nonlinear chemical effects are important to estimate and consider when designing or assessing air pollution control strategies.

Prior Engagement in Physical Activity Correlates with Enhanced Quality of Life Perceptions among Older Adults during COVID-19 Lockdown.

This longitudinal study aimed to evaluate whether prior engagement in a physical exercise program correlated with enhanced perceptions of quality-of-life components among older adults during the COVID-19 lockdown period. The cohort comprised elderly individuals (aged ≥ 65 years) who had previously partaken in a 12-week randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of a mixed aerobic-anaerobic, moderate-intensity exercise program. Participants' health-related quality of life was assessed using the Short Form Health Survey-12 item (SF-12) at the beginning of the initial trial and, again, one year later during the COVID-19 lockdown. In the exercise group, 44 participants were included, while the control group consisted of 49 participants, with computer-based, double-blind randomization conducted in Cagliari, Italy. The differences in scores for each SF-12 item between the two groups from T0 to T1 were compared using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. No statistically significant differences were observed on average by age (exercise group vs. control group 72.20 ± 4.78 vs. 72.91 ± 4.77; F = 0.513, p = 0.476). A decrease from T0 to T1 towards a better score on the SF-12 was observed in the exercise group compared to the control group in item 1 (F = 67.463, p < 0.0001); in item 5 (F = 4.319, p = 0.041); item 8 (F = 4.269, p = 0.041); item 9 (F = 10.761, p = 0.001); item 10 (F = 170.433, p < 0.001); and item 11 (F = 4.075, p = 0.046). The results suggest that participation in a moderate physical exercise program one year prior may have equipped older adults with better coping mechanisms to navigate the stress and isolation imposed by the COVID-19 lockdown, as reflected by their enhanced scores on quality-of-life components pertaining to mental well-being. Exercise may confer a protective effect against the adverse psychological impacts of stressful events like the pandemic, even among older adults with chronic conditions. This study underscores the potential benefits of exercise interventions for promoting quality of life and preventing mood disorders in the elderly population.

Psychological impact of COVID-19 lockdown period on students of healthcare colleges: Comment.

Psychological impact of COVID-19 lockdown period on students of healthcare colleges: Comment.

Spatio-temporal variation of aerosol optical depth and black carbon mass concentration over five airports across Bangladesh: emphasis on effect of COVID-19 lockdown

Globally, the COVID-19 outbreak has had a devastating impact on both health and economy. In contrast, the reduction in anthropogenic emissions has resulted in a major improvement in air quality. In this study, US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) satellite datasets and related reanalysis model data were used with validation using ground-based data to evaluate the effects of aviation-based emissions on aerosol optical depth (AOD) and black carbon (BC). The contributions from five airports in Bangladesh were assessed during the pre-lockdown (01 Jan to 22 March), lockdown (23 March to 30 May), and post-lockdown (31 May to 30 Aug) periods in 2019 and 2020. The study’s findings show that during the 2020 lockdown, AOD and BC concentrations significantly decreased at all five airports. The overall decline of AOD was ~ 18.5% (13.1% to 22.8%) and BC was ~ 18.1% (16.6% to 22.2%) in 2020 compared to 2019. The three international airports that were examined—Dhaka, Chattagram, and Sylhet—showed an average reduction of about ~ 9.7%, while Jashore and Barisal—two domestic airports—saw a minor increase in AOD of ~ 0.8% over the same period. However, the average BC concentration at both international and domestic airports dropped by ~ 9.8% and ~ 10.2%, respectively. This is the first study to use reanalysis datasets in Bangladesh to evaluate air pollution levels and aviation-based emissions. The results highlight the significant impact of reduced aviation activity on air quality and provide valuable insights for future air pollution management strategies.Graphical

Exploring the antecedent factors of continuous intention to use mobile money: insights from emerging markets

Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine the factors that may have an influence on the continuous intention to use mobile money as one of the Financial Technology (FinTech) products beyond the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown period. Design/methodology/approach This study has empirically tested the expanded post-acceptance model (Extend-PAM) and the expectation-confirmation model (ECM) to explain the mobile money adoption in Jordan. Data collected were analyzed through partial least squares–structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Findings The results mainly showed that the quality of administrative services and trust significantly impact confirmation and perceived usefulness. In addition, perceived security and knowledge of mobile money as one of the FinTech services significantly influence users’ confirmation and perceived usefulness. Also, usefulness and satisfaction influence continuous intention. Significant relationships were noted among confirmation, perceived usefulness, satisfaction and continuous intention to use mobile money. Originality/value This paper integrates two key theories: the expanded post-acceptance model (Extend-PAM) and the expectation-confirmation model (ECM) in the post-adoption behavior of mobile money. Therefore, this study attempts to fill a literature gap by examining the antecedent factors that influence the continuous intention to use mobile money services in the post-consumption stage.

DNN model reveals sharp decline in PM2.5 concentration in the Yangtze River Delta during COVID-19 lockdown and lift lockdown

The COVID-19 lockdown in early 2020 and subsequent lifting in late 2022 had a significant impact on air pollution levels in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD). Previous studies have not provided a clear understanding of the detailed spatiotemporal characteristics of PM2.5 concentrations in various functional areas of cities during different periods before and after the outbreak of the epidemic. However, by employing a deep neural network (DNN) model and integrating satellite data, meteorological reanalysis, and PM2.5 observations, established an estimation of high-resolution PM2.5 distribution during the period from 2019 to 2022. The DNN model performed well (R2 = 0.78). During the lockdown, PM2.5 concentrations in 14 YRD cities were over 50% lower than in previous years. Interestingly, even after the lockdown was lifted, PM2.5 levels remained relatively low due to reduced human activities caused by widespread infections. Found that PM2.5 reductions varied across different intra-city functional regions during both the lockdown and lift lockdown periods. Overall, the changes in PM2.5 levels during the 2022 lift lockdown were smaller than during the 2020 lockdown. These findings emphasize the need for tailored government policies to address COVID-19's impact on air pollution, considering diverse functional areas within the region.

Impact of COVID-19 early in the pandemic on the mental health and wellbeing of adolescents in Australia and Cambodia: a cross-national comparison using a quantitative descriptive and comparative approach.

The impact of COVID-19 on the mental health and wellbeing of adolescents is a major concern. Most research has been conducted only in more economically developed countries. Using data from two similar surveys administered during July-September, 2020 in Australia (a high-income country) and Cambodia (a low-middle income country), this paper examined the impact early in the pandemic on the mental health and wellbeing of adolescents in the two countries. We found that COVID-19 had mostly negative impacts on participants' mental health; threats to personal safety; education; support for schooling; basic necessities such as food, income, employment, and housing; and responsibilities at home. This finding suggests that even short-term disasters may have negative repercussions, and regardless of differences in wealth, culture, and government response. We found that threats to personal safety appeared to be more prevalent in Cambodia than in Australia, the impact on mental health of the Cambodian participants may have been greater than reported, and that, in both countries, support for online or distance schooling during periods of lockdown was wanting, particularly at the state and school levels. This study will contribute to our understanding of the impact of major disruptive global events on young people in both more economically developed and developing countries.

A history of PTSD changes the way people express themselves during the COVID-19 pandemic

ABSTRACT Background: The words people use in everyday life tell us about their emotions, their mental state and allow us to understand how people process and interpret an event. Previous research has established a link between the content analysis of narrative texts and the psychopathology of people who have experienced trauma. Objectives: This study examines whether the development of PTSD following exposure to a previous traumatic event alters the way people express themselves in the context of an anxiety-provoking event, the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: This study is based on semi-structured interviews conducted during the first lockdown period in France (23 April–16 May 2020) with people exposed to the 13 November 2015 attacks (N = 31) and nonexposed people (N = 57). Results: People with PTSD had longer narratives and used more first-person singular pronouns, lower first-person plural pronouns, more words related to negative emotions and anxiety compared to the nonexposed group. Within the PTSD group, there was no significant difference between the use of words related to the attacks and the pandemic. Conversely, the nonexposed group used more words related to the COVID-19 pandemic compared to words related to the attacks. Conclusion: These results confirm, as have other studies, that a history of PTSD can specifically modify the style and narrative of past experiences. They underline the importance of including linguistic analyses in psychological assessments of PTSD.

COVID-19 lockdowns and children's access to justice: An interrupted time series analysis of Moroccan court filings

Morocco's national lockdown was enforced between March 21st and June 10th 2020 in response to the spread of coronavirus. Restriction of civil space was not fully extended to the judiciary which had to transition to virtual sessions. To prepare for future pandemics and disasters, it is crucial to understand how well court systems across jurisdictions especially in low- and middle-income countries managed to function and protect children's access to justice under the constraints of stay-at-home orders. To investigate the effect of the national lockdown on children's access to justice in Morocco, this study employed interrupted time series analysis of publicly available court filings (N = 77,335) pertaining to child protection from January 1st to December 31st 2020 spanning the pre-lockdown, lockdown, and post-lockdown periods. Results showed that lockdown measures hampered children's access to justice and is associated with statistically significant and substantial deceases in the number of cases heard by the courts across all filing types. The interrupted time series model estimates that average cases per week dropped by 199.5 for penal filings, 1180.3 for civil filings, 942.5 for complaint filings, and 358.1 for report fillings during the lockdown relative to the pre-lockdown period. While the percentage of cases with recorded delays mostly increased, the average case length decreased except for civil filings which saw a significant increase. The substantial susceptibility of civil cases to lockdowns might be precipitated by the need of individuals to petition the court for a hearing. Evidence suggests that the courts adjudicating child protection cases struggled to maintain operations during the national lockdown, and indicates the need for stronger disaster preparedness and an integrated child protection system to increase the judiciaries' resilience and children's access to justice in future emergency and disaster events.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performance of the Rapid Access Lung Cancer Clinic.

The Rapid Access Lung Cancer Clinic (RALC) experienced fewer referrals during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ireland. Our aim was to determine the impact of the pandemic on the key performance indicators (KPIs) of the Cork University Hospital (CUH) RALC, using a retrospective chart review of the referrals and attendances. The medical charts of patients referred to CUH-RALC from 03/2019 to 02/2020 (period I), and from 03/2020 to 02/2021 (period II) were reviewed. Performance of the RALC was determined based on average wait time from referral to 1] acquisition of the first CT scan, 2] consultation, and 3] receiving a cancer diagnosis, and compared between periods I and II. Average monthly referrals (57.3 vs 42.1, p = 0.0078) and RALC reviews (24.3 vs 22, p = 0.0310) were lower in period II compared to period I. However, no difference was seen in the length of time from referral to review at RALC or time to receive cancer diagnosis. There were shorter wait times from referral to CT scan (11.2 vs. 8.7 days, p = 0.0011) and to surgery (109.0 vs 79.3 days, p = 0.0236) in period II. The COVID-19 pandemic had minimal impact on the performance of RALC at our institution. Fewer referrals to RALC in period II may relate to hesitancy in attending general practitioner (GP) and/or GPs raising the thresholds for referrals to RALC during the early lockdown period of the pandemic. A national evaluation will be required to fully determine the impact of this pandemic on lung cancer in Ireland.

Development of an ARIMAX model for forecasting airport electricity consumption in Accra-Ghana: The role of weather and air passenger traffic

The rapid expansion of the aviation industry has significantly increased energy consumption within airport terminals. This study introduces an advanced ARIMAX model to forecast electricity consumption at Kotoka International Airport (KIA) in Ghana by incorporating weather conditions and air passenger numbers. By analysing data from 2019 to 2022, including lockdown periods, the model demonstrates superior predictive accuracy, evidenced by an RMSE of 55,914 kWh, a MAPE of 4.22 %, and an R-squared value of 0.899. Key determinants of energy consumption identified include air passengers and temperature, highlighting their substantial impact on energy use. The ARIMAX model's accuracy underscores its potential for enhancing energy management practices at airports. By integrating variables such as air passenger traffic and weather conditions, the model refines energy demand predictions, supporting more efficient energy use and operational planning. The ARIMAX model proves to be a valuable tool for forecasting energy consumption at KIA, aiding in energy management and sustainability efforts.

Analysing Post-Pandemic Female Labour Force Participation and Intra-Household Dynamics Through the Lens of Social Reproduction: The Indian Case

The coronavirus pandemic has adversely impacted women in both the productive and the reproductive realms of the Indian economy. While more women are observed to have lost their jobs, household and care work burden increased for all classes of women at least in the initial lockdown period. In this article, we put forth possible scenarios that can arise in the post-pandemic Indian economy regarding female labour force participation and intra-household dynamics, using social reproduction theory as our analytical framework. We posit that the pandemic will distress-drive women to participate in the labour force. Also, female formal workers who lost or quit their jobs during the crisis period may completely withdraw from the labour force if their spouses retain their jobs. Further, financial constraints can increase the incidences of spousal violence for female informal workers. Finally, social reproduction duties will intensify for female informal workers. While this can hold for female formal workers, their burden may be relieved through the hiring of domestic help.

The day-of-the-week effect is resilient to routine change.

Temporal landmarks are salient events that structure the way humans think about time. They may be personal events, such as one's birthday, or shared cultural events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to societal habits, the cyclical weekly structure - for example, working on weekdays, resting on the weekends - helps individuals orient themselves in time. In the "day-of-the-week effect," individuals are faster at reporting which day of the week it is on weekends than they are on weekdays. Herein, we hypothesized that the disruption of social habits during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns may have weakened this effect, thereby accounting for the "Blursday" phenomenon. In the current study, speeded responses to the question "What day of the week is it?" were collected online from 1,742 French participants, during and after the lockdown periods. We found that reaction times for days of the weekends remained faster than for weekdays during the lockdown, although the overall reaction times were significantly slower during lockdown. We also found that responses were slower as governmental stringency rules and restrictions in mobility increased. Our results suggest that the weekend landmark remains a stable temporal anchor in French culture despite the experienced temporal distortions induced by the disruption of social habits during the pandemic. We conclude that cultural temporal landmarks shape socially shared temporal cognitive maps.

Factors Determining The Delay in Access to Appropriate Emergency Obstetric Care During The Lockdown Period of The COVID-19 Pandemic: An Observational Study at A Tertiary Referral Centre

Background: The WHO declared the COVID-19 pandemic as a public health emergency of inter-national concern following which many governments around the world adopted the most radical social distancing procedure, referred to as “lockdown”, to prevent the spread of the virus. As a result, unsupervised pregnancies and the absence of routine antenatal visits lead to dreaded maternal and fetal complications. This study determines the barriers to accessing emergency care by pregnant women during the lockdown period.Subjects and Method: This prospective study was conducted during the lockdown period in Delhi from 1 May 2021 to 31 May 2021. A total of 666 pregnant and postpartum patients admitted from casualty during this period were included. The variable of the study was various factors causing delays of more than 4 hours in accessing emergency care services by these patients after the onset of symptoms was assessed. This study used the conceptual model of Three Delays. The data was collected as per predesigned proforma. The demography, Obstetric profile, and various levels of delays were noted. The data was analyzed by frequencies and percentages using SPSS version 21.Results: Among 666 enrolled participants, about 55.7% were multigravida and 48.04% belonged to the upper-lower class. Nearly 43% of patients were illiterate. Antenatal delay of &gt; 4 hours was observed in 590 patients (88.6%). In Level 1 delay, the main reasons for the delay were unawareness of danger signs (45.8%) and lockdown (30.93%). The major reason for the Level 2 delay was care declined at the previous center (33.93%). Reasons for the Level 3 delay were due to either unavailability of beds or overcrowding after reaching the facility.Conclusion: The unawareness of danger signs was the most common cause of delay. Hence, effective communication and counseling during the antenatal period have to be improved upon.

Compulsive digital use: the risk and link of loneliness among adolescents.

The current rise of digital technologies is causing adolescents to spend more time on their digital devices, especially since the lockdown period of the pandemic. Adolescents are among those who are affected by lifestyle changes and are at risk of digital addiction due to the overuse of digital technologies. This opinion paper discusses the possible risk of loneliness among adolescents due to the overuse of digital devices. In this article, we would like to propose the concept of digital abuse and its risk of loneliness, as well as discuss some proposed solutions by referring to recent statistics and research evidence to reduce digital abuse among adolescents. Evidence from previous studies highlights the association between digital addiction and loneliness among adolescents. Overusing digital devices among adolescents is also associated with various physical and psychological side effects. Recent findings support the rapid rise of digital device usage among adolescents and its contributions to digital use. More research is needed to support existing interventions, provide early screening, and combat digital addiction to protect adolescents from the risks of loneliness due to the overuse of digital devices.

Response of PM2.5 chemical composition to the emission reduction and meteorological variation during the COVID-19 lockdown

PM2.5 is a main atmospheric pollutant with various sources and complex chemical compositions, which are influenced by various factors, such as anthropogenic emissions (AE) and meteorological conditions (MC). MC have a significant impacts on variations in atmospheric pollutant; therefore, emission reduction policies and ambient air quality are non-linearly correlated, which hinders the accurate assessment of the effectiveness of control measures. In this study, we conducted online observations of PM2.5 and its chemical composition in Hohhot, China, from December 1, 2019, to February 29, 2020, to investigate how the chemical compositions of PM2.5 respond to the variations in AE and MC. Moreover, the random forest (RF) model was used to quantify the contributions of AE and MC to PM2.5 and its chemical composition during severe hazes and the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown period. During the clean period, MC reduced PM2.5 concentrations by 124%, while MC incresed PM2.5 concentrations by 49% during severe pollution episode. Inorganic aerosols (SO42−, NO3−, and NH4+) showed the strongest response to MC. MC significantly contributed to PM2.5 (36%), SO42− (32%), NO3− (29%), NH4+ (28%), OC (22%), and SOC (17%) levels during pollution episodes. From the pre-lockdown to lockdown period, AE (MC) contributed 52% (48%), 81% (19%), 48% (52%), 68% (32%), 59% (41%), and 288% (−188%) to the PM2.5, SO42−, NO3−, NH4+, OC, and SOC reductions, respectively. The variations in MC (especially the increase in relative humidity) rapidly generated meteorologically sensitive species (SO42−, NO3−, and NH4+), which led to severe winter pollution. This study provides a reference for assessing the net benefits of emission reduction measures for PM2.5 and its chemical compositions.

The impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on accommodation preferences in Italy: a temporal and geographical analysis (2018-2022)

The spread of the Coronavirus has triggered a global crisis, significantly altering global geopolitical balance. The pandemic has profoundly disrupted the performance of the global economy, causing disruption and losses in all sectors. Once the lockdown period was over, economic production and the labor market began a delicate process of adaptation to new conditions. The tourism sector, due to the restrictions imposed to reduce national and international flows, has suffered a significant impact and has been forced to reinvent itself through new travel methods. This study aims to analyze the adaptation of the tourism sector, with attention to preferences relating to accommodation facilities. The analysis focuses on the partial replacement, during the holiday organization phase, of traditional hotel establishments with more open-space solutions, such as campsites and tourist villages. The data provided by ISTAT as part of the Occupancy in tourist accommodation establishment, relating to the period 2018-2022, is used. This time frame includes the years before the pandemic, the years characterized by the spread of the virus and the subsequent recovery period. At first, the situation at national level during the years considered is examined. Subsequently, the analysis is deepened at a regional level, in order to understand the trend in the four Italian geographical macro-areas: Northern Italy, Central Italy, Southern Italy and Insular Italy. This subdivision allows us to precisely identify the regions that follow a trend in line with the national one and those that deviate from it. The main objective of the study is to analyze consumers' choices during the pandemic, investigating whether the latter has actually permanently changed their preferences, or whether we are witnessing a return to habits prior to the health crisis. Through this analysis, we intend to provide a detailed and articulated vision of the impact of the pandemic on Italian tourism dynamics, contributing to the understanding of the changes taking place in the sector and future prospects.

Aggravated surface O3 pollution primarily driven by meteorological variations in China during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic lockdown period

Abstract. Due to the lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic in China from late January to early April in 2020, a significant reduction in primary air pollutants, as compared to the same time period in 2019, has been identified by satellite and ground observations. However, this reduction is in contrast with the increase of surface ozone (O3) concentration in many parts of China during the same period from 2019 to 2020. The reasons for this contrast are studied here from two perspectives: emission changes and inter-annual meteorological variations. Based on top-down constraints of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from TROPOMI measurements and GEOS-Chem model simulations, our analysis reveals that NOx and volatile organic compound (VOC) emission reductions as well as meteorological variations lead to 8 %, −3 % and 1 % changes in O3 over North China, respectively. In South China, however, we find that meteorological variations cause ∼ 30 % increases in O3, which is much larger than −1 % and 2 % changes due to VOC and NOx emission reductions, respectively, and the overall O3 increase in the simulations is consistent with the surface observations. The higher temperature associated with the increase in solar radiation and the decreased relative humidity are the main reasons that led to the surface O3 increase in South China. Collectively, inter-annual meteorological variations had a larger impact than emission reductions on the aggravated surface O3 pollution in China during the lockdown period of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Analysis of Investment in Equity: Value or Growth Investing?

Mr. TVK Vivek Kumar, Managing Partner at Bestpals Research and Advisory LLP, was searching for investment opportunities during the lockdown period following COVID-19. The stock markets witnessed a crash and most stocks were trading at decade-low prices. Mr. Kumar identified this as an opportunity for investment and wealth creation. He started scanning the stocks related to different sectors like Retail, Fast Moving Consumer Goods, E-commerce, and soon discovered the agricultural equipment and machinery sector stocks may offer attractive opportunities. He collected data related to the agricultural machinery sector and details of Indian companies operating in the Agricultural Machinery and Farm equipment sector. After reviewing the company profiles, he concluded that Escorts Ltd. and VST Tillers Tractors Ltd. were less diversified companies that mostly focused on manufacturing agricultural equipment. Upon analyzing the financial performance of the two companies, he was unable to decide which of these two companies for investments had the potential to deliver better returns. The goal was to identify Value or Growth stocks for a short-term investment horizon of 12–18 months, as he had no idea what the long-term outlook might be in the post-COVID-19 era.