Local Inspection Research Articles

Land disputes on legal certainty in South Sulawesi South Sulawesi in 2023

Objective To begin with, the plaintiff is questioned about the contents of his claim. The judge can make a decision with the help of local examination. When it comes to the construction of evidence in civil cases, the duties and responsibilities of local examination of the object of land dispute is an issue that arises. shows that local examination based on Article 153 HIR, Article 180 R. Bg or Article 211 Rv as well as SEMA No. 7 of 2001 does not reflect legal certainty because it does not regulate the mechanism of local examination in the field thoroughly, which leads to many interpretations. In addition, it is still ambiguous whether local examination is a means of evidence whose value is left to the judge or whether local examination is only an examination tool or method of obtaining evidence. Research Results and Discussion Local inspection results are a valid source of evidence in civil cases, local examinations have the following legal consequences: (1) court costs if the judge requests a local examination; and (2) the evidentiary power of the local examination. Both of these are legal consequences that need to be clarified in future regulations. elements that need to be clarified in future regulations. Conclusion In civil cases, all cases relating to immovable property are required to ensure legal certainty in the future regulation of local inspection of land. to create legal certainty regarding local inspection, the diversity of this regulation is very important. In order to create legal certainty regarding local examination, diversity of regulation is essential. Regulations regarding local examination should be established at the level of a law so that they have strong legal force against all parties involved in the case, including judges, clerks, and all other parties.

Common auditor, knowledge transfer and audit quality: international evidence

PurposeUsing an international sample of firms affiliated with a business group, this paper aims to investigate the audit quality of common auditors, i.e. auditors shared by multiple firms affiliated with the same business group.Design/methodology/approachThis paper utilizes a large sample of group-affiliated firms from 35 regions. Following the frameworks of DeFond and Zhang (2014) and Fung et al. (2017), this paper measures audit quality using the absolute value of abnormal accruals and modified audit opinions. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression is used to address the research question.FindingsThe findings demonstrate that audit quality improves for firms that share the same auditor with other group members. Importantly, cross-country analyses reveal that this relationship is stronger when auditors operate in countries with stricter local auditor inspection programs and an overall opaque information environment. Additionally, the impact of common auditors on audit quality is more pronounced for group affiliates that have a more opaque firm-level information environment and are monitored by heightened institutional ownership.Practical implicationsWhile affiliates are more likely to select the same audit firms as common auditors, the evidence regarding the effects of common auditors is mixed. The results of this study provide further insights into auditor choices for group-affiliated firms and offer a potential avenue for better protecting shareholders' interests.Originality/valueThe results of this study add to the ongoing debates regarding the costs and benefits of common auditor choice for group affiliates. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to demonstrate that the effects of common auditors may vary in different external environments.

Mimicking Polymer Processing Conditions on the Meso-Scale: Relaxation and Crystallization in Polyethylene Systems after Uni- and Biaxial Stretching.

Highly varying process conditions drive polymers into nonequilibrium molecular conformations. This has direct implications for the resulting structural and mechanical properties. This study rigorously investigated processing-property relations from a microscopic perspective. The corresponding models use a mesoscale molecular dynamics (MD) approach. Different loading conditions, including uniaxial and biaxial stretching, along with various cooling conditions, were employed to mimic process conditions on the micro-scale. The resulting intricate interplay between equi-biaxial stretching, orientation, and crystallization behavior in long polyethylene chains was reviewed. The study reveals notable effects depending on different cooling and biaxial stretching procedures. The findings emphasize the significance of considering distributions and directions of chain ordering. Local inspections of trajectories unveil that crystal growth predominantly occurs in regions devoid of entanglements.

Legal Certainty Of Local Inspections Regarding Land Disputes In Civil Cases

Penyelesaian sengketa hak atas tanah di Pengadilan Negeri sebelum sampai pada pemeriksaan dengan agenda pembuktian, maka kepada para pihak berperkara akan dilakukan mediasi. Hakim, panitera dan juru sita bersama para pihak menuju lokasi objek yang diperiksa dan melakukan pemeriksaan. Yang dimintai keterangan adalah pihak penggugat sesuai isi gugatannya. Rumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini adalah 1. Apakah pemeriksaan setempat terhadap objek sengketa tanah dalam perkara perdata telah memberikan kepastian hukum? 2. Apakah implikasi hukum dari pemeriksaan setempat terhadap suatu objek perkara perdata? 3. Bagaimana kepastian hukum dalam pengaturan ke depan pada pemeriksaan setempat terhadap objek tanah dalam perkara perdata. Hasil penelitian mengatakan Pemeriksaan setempat berdasarkan Pasal 153 HIR, Pasal 180 RBg, Pasal 211 – 214 Rv dan SEMA No. 7 tahun 2001 belum mengatur secara rinci mekanisme pemeriksaan setempat dilapangan. Pemeriksaan setempat masih rancu, apakah merupakan alat bukti yang memiliki kekuatan dalam pembuktian atau pemeriksaan setempat tidak termasuk sebagai kategori alat bukti.

Centralization of environmental administration and air pollution: Evidence from China

This paper studies how centralizing environmental administration affects air pollution in China. China launched a reform in 2016 to empower upper-level environmental protection bureaus to administer lower-level bureaus vertically through personnel control. Exploiting a stacked difference-in-differences strategy, we find that the reform significantly reduced air pollution. The effect was stronger in places where pollution was less likely to be affected by spillovers from other provinces, where local governments initially paid less attention to environmental protection, and where there was less economic importance. Further analysis shows that the reform reduced pollution by strengthening the pollution reduction incentives of local environmental officials, increasing the intensity of local environmental inspection, and promoting environmental compliance by polluting firms.

Reflections on the Saudi FDA Regulatory Experience with Smart GxP Inspections.

Smart GxP inspections have gained increasing attention due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which, understandably, made it challenging for regulatory authorities to conduct on-site inspections. Smart GxP inspections are an oversight approach developed by the SFDA to enable remote compliance assessments of establishments. In this type of inspection, appropriate technical methods and tools (such as livestreaming video) are used without requiring the presence of inspectors onsite, ensuring efficient utilization of resources and the efficiency of inspection process. The objective of this research is to examine and document the shared encounters involving remote inspections and evaluations carried out by SFDA from 2020 to 2022. This will be achieved through the evaluation of the accuracy of document evaluation and the extent to which the objectives of smart GxP inspections were met. Data were collected from local and international smart inspections reports conducted by SFDA between 2020 and 2022, covering medical device manufacturers, pharmaceutical manufacturing sites, warehouses, accreditation offices, scientific offices, and food manufacturing facilities. The results indicate that smart GxP inspections were effective in achieving visit objectives, showing a high degree of document evaluation accuracy. The findings of this study support the use of smart GxP inspections as a valuable alternative to on-site inspections, offering a practical solution to regulatory compliance during the pandemic and beyond. Although the SFDA recognizes the usefulness of smart inspections in upholding regulatory oversight in the face of various challenges, it does not endorse the complete replacement of conventional on-site inspection methods. The SFDA acknowledges significant limitations associated with the current technological resources used in remote regulatory assessments, and these limitations will be explored in the relevant sections.

Feature Engineering and Decision Trees for Predicting High Crash-Risk Locations Using Roadway Indicators

Road crashes are a prevalent public health issue across the globe. The objective of this research was to develop a methodology for accurately classifying high-risk crash locations. The hypothesis of this study was that readily obtained roadway indicators can be used along with machine learning techniques to categorize locations as high crash-risk. A database containing 5,383 locations was created during 2012 to 2015 as part of the Hellenic National Road Safety Project and used to develop three binary machine learning models to classify high crash-risk locations based on roadway indicators. The three models were random forest, gradient boosting, and extra trees. This research used features engineering to reduce the number of indicators in the model, and the synthetic minority oversampling technique to address imbalances in the dataset between the minority (high crash-risk locations identified using crash reports) and majority classes (medium to low crash-risk locations identified based on local police testimonies, site inspections, and geometry analysis). Although all three models performed similarly, the extra trees model outperformed the other two on a range of performance metrics, including the area under the precision–recall curve and the F1-score. The findings revealed that design speeds, pavement markings, signage presence, and pavement condition were the most influential factors affecting roadway safety. The contribution of this research is in the development of a transferable methodology for classifying high crash-risk locations in addition to revealing key indicators for crash-risk potential, which in turn can inform cost-effective data collection and maintenance activities.

Тюремные инспекторы Западной Сибири и организация пенитенциарного ведомства в конце XIX – начале XX в.

The purpose of the article consists in studying of a position of provincial prison inspector in the regional administrative apparatus and in researching of local prison inspection’s activity. Using microhistorical approach, structural-functional method and methods of retrospective and discourse analysis, the authors made an attempt to analyze the stages of the creation of the prison institution in Western Siberia and the scenarios of its transformation. The historical sources involved in the research including periodicals, sources of personal origin, documents of governmental agencies, archive materials and works of historians and publicists allow us to provide an overall pattern of provincial prison inspections’ functioning. A logical consequence of the creation of a central prison institute was the gradual formation of provincial prison departments. Due to a number of favorable factors, the prison inspection bodies (as part of the provincial governments) were formed in 1892 in the Tomsk Governorate. In other regions of Siberia, including the Tobolsk Governorate, these regulations became effective only in 1895. The prison departments were headed by provincial prison inspectors, who held a much higher position than another heads of departments. In this regard, they were almost on the same level as the vice-governor. The authors conclude that the inspection of prisons was sufficiently extensive, ranging from inspection of penitentiaries, detention houses and transit points, control of their sanitary conditions and technical equipment, to the staffing of prison schools, churches and libraries. The West Siberian prison inspections played an important role in the production and organization of convict labor, which served as an integral part of the penitentiary process of criminal forces. The philanthropic feelings were also not alien to prison officials – a lot of work was invested by the inspectors in the development of trusteeship and charitable institutions, maintaining corporate identity within the prison department, expanding official relations at the all-Russian and international level. These prison officers played a significant role in the systematization of penitentiary regulations. Despite the fact that the thesis of the need for the existence of the prison inspections was questioned in official circles, it still survived the onslaught of criticism, proving the expediency and effectiveness of its activities, developed its own scenarios for functioning during the period of revolutionary unrest and social transformations.

Judges' considerations in passing decision based on the results of local inspection

Judges' considerations in passing decision based on the results of local inspection

일본의 동해안 정탐 활동과 원산 개항

Located in Hamgyeong Province on the East Sea coast, Wonsan was the second port to be opened next Busan after Joseon signed ‘The Joseon-Japan treaty of Amity’ in 1876. This area was where the warship Unyo(雲揚艦) conducted reconnaissance activities and contacted local people while moving up along the East Coast at the time of its first visit in June 1875. The voyage log of the warship Unyo clearly reveals the investigation of the environment around Broughton Bay(永興灣), the contempt that they had for the local people, and the contact with the local people. Miyamoto Okazu(宮本小一) also concluded that Wonsanjin should be used as an open port based on his experience in Joseon and the story of an officer aboard the warship Ryuzou(龍 驤艦). Hanabusa Yoshimoto who had been dispatched to Joseon as charge d’affaires since 1877, traveled to and from the coast of Joseon on a warship and negotiated with Joseon officials in areas requiring coal supply stations and open ports. Measuring the coast of Hamgyeong province was carried out in detail through the warship Amagi dispatched to Joseon in 1878. At that time, the perceptions and responses that Joseon local residents and officials had about the activities of the Japanese people can be confirmed through data related to warship Amagi. The opening of Wonsan and the establishment of basic infrastructure were based on the continuous reconnaissance activities of warships sent by the Japanese navy and the collection of information by Japanese army officers. While inspecting the Wonsan area, Japanese merchants first decided on the space in which they would move and the operation policy of the residence. In this article, we looked at the process of opening the port of Wonsan by reviewing various aspects of the Japanese warship’s survey and inspection of the northern coast of Joseon, the response of local residents, and the local inspections and response of Japanese merchants in Busan.

An adaptive crack inspection method for building surface based on BIM, UAV and edge computing

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and building information modeling (BIM) have been applied to inspect building surfaces to improve efficiency and reduce labor costs. However, most of the current research focus on the inspection mode of “first collect and then identify” with limited intelligence. Therefore, this study proposes a “global-local” adaptive inspection method for building surfaces by integrating BIM, UAV (with multifunction camera), and edge computing, enabling real-time synchronization of crack data collection and analysis. First, the building surface area to be inspected is extracted from BIM to generate global inspection points using the selected camera's field of view (FOV) and considering coordinates transformation between BIM and reality. Then, A star algorithm integrating with genetic algorithm (GA) is used to optimize the global flight path based on generated inspection points. Finally, the coordinates of the inspection points based on BIM are converted into real-world coordinates, and the flight parameters such as the flight yaw angle (FYA) and the gimbal yaw angle (GYA) are calculated to generate the inspection mission. During global inspection, a local adaptive inspection is proposed for each FOV through real-time local crack identification and flight replanning using edge computing and zoom camera. In addition, multiple battery supply points are automatically added considering the endurance of the UAV. A real building has been used to validate the proposed “global-local” adaptive inspection method. The experiment results show that the inspection time has been significantly reduced compared with the traditional method, and the crack identification of building surfaces can be implemented with high efficiency, precision, quality, and low cost.

Reproducibility of 3D thoracic aortic displacement from 3D cine balanced SSFP at 3 T without contrast enhancement.

Aortic motion has direct impact on the mechanical stresses acting on the aorta. In aortic disease, increased stiffness of the aorta may lead to decreased aortic motion over time, which could be a predictor for aortic dissection or rupture. This study investigates the reproducibility of obtaining 3D displacement and diameter maps quantified using accelerated 3D cine MRI at 3 T. A noncontrast-enhanced, free-breathing 3D cine sequence based on balanced SSFP and pseudo-spiral undersampling with high spatial isotropic resolution was developed (spatial/temporal resolution [1.6 mm]3 /67 ms). The thoracic aorta of 14 healthy volunteers was prospectively scanned three times at 3 T: twice on the same day and a third time 2 weeks later. Aortic displacement was calculated using iterative closest point nonrigid registration of manual segmentations of the 3D aorta at end-systole and mid-diastole. Interexamination and interobserver regional analysis of mean displacement for five regions of interest was performed using Bland-Altman analysis. Additionally, a complementary voxel-by-voxel analysis was done, allowing a more local inspection of the method. No significant differences were found in mean and maximum displacement for any of the regions of interest for the interexamination and interobserver analysis. The maximum displacement measured in the lower half of the ascending aorta was 11.0 ± 3.4 mm (range: 3.0-17.5 mm) for the first scan. The smallest detectable change in mean displacement in the lower half of the ascending aorta was 3 mm. Detailed 3D cine balanced SSFP at 3 T allows for reproducible quantification of systolic-diastolic mean aortic displacement within acceptable limits.

Local defect formation in short glass fibre reinforced polymers – micro-mechanical simulations and interrupted in-situ experiments

Discontinuous fibre reinforced polymers are widely used in various industry sectors and often replace conventional materials, due to lower production costs and their lightweight structure. For improvement of the component design, detailed knowledge of the failure mechanisms are necessary. To better understand the defect formation and thus the micro-mechanics, the strain behaviour in single fibres was analysed by micro-mechanical simulations of Representative Volume Elements (RVE). Therefore, selected fibres – similar orientated as in the real structure – were chosen for detailed analysis. Additionally, the defect formation next to selected fibres was investigated by X-ray computed tomography (CT). Furthermore, the critical fibre length was estimated based on the protruding fibre length of the fracture surface. Overall the simulation results correspond to theory. However, the detailed local inspection of the experimental volume data showed a rather strong influence of neighbouring fibres.

A defect detection framework using three-dimensional convolutional neural network (3D-CNN) with in-situ monitoring data in laser powder bed fusion process

Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is a promising additive manufacturing (AM) technology for manufacturing complex-shaped metallic parts with high density. Since L-PBF has been rapidly developed and applied in various industries, the quality assurance of the printed part using the process became a topic of primary importance. In this respect, in-situ monitoring techniques have received increased attention in recent years for aiding the quality control of L-PBF process and the certification of the products. This study proposes a novel defect detection framework with a three-dimensional convolutional neural network (3D-CNN) and in-situ monitoring of light intensity for detecting both the lack-of-fusion and keyhole-induced defects. The proposed 3D-CNN model works with a 3D moving window to perform the local inspection using the measured light intensities in three-dimensional space to classify the type of defect. Furthermore, the model predicts the local volume fraction to provide insights into the degree of defect. To perform the classification and regression with a single 3D-CNN, the joint classification and regression approach was adopted to train the model using the results obtained with micro-computed tomography as the ground truth. In order to build the training dataset, the samples with artificial defects were fabricated in different process regimes with energy densities ranging from 19.84J/mm3 to 110.12J/mm3. After the training process, the proposed model was evaluated with the test specimens which contain randomized defects generated due to the excessively low and high energy input. The results showed that the proposed 3D-CNN-based defect detection framework can detect pores greater than 80μm induced by both lack-of-fusion and keyhole mode melting. The sensitivity of the proposed framework was evaluated, showing the true positive rate of 75.69% and 70.47% for lack-of-fusion and keyhole defects with a void volume larger than 0.0003mm3. The prediction of local volume fraction with R2 score of 0.91 was also achieved with the proposed 3D-CNN approach.

Methodology for developing a prediction model for the remaining fatigue life and residual strength of tidal turbine blades

As tidal energy nears commercial viability, the reliability and safety of a tidal energy device becomes more prevalent. A key aspect for determining their reliability and safety, along with reducing risk during operational deployment, is the structural integrity of tidal turbine blades. Therefore, a validated model for predicting the structural integrity of tidal turbine blades will aid in de-risking tidal energy technologies. In this study, a three-phase approach was used to formulate a strategy to predict the remaining fatigue life and residual strength of tidal turbine blades, over their operational lifespan. In Phase 1, the parameters influencing the structural properties of tidal turbine blades were identified based on the literature review, and the expertise in the field. Then, parameters were extensively studied and classified into four main impact groups, which include load conditions, design and manufacturing, degradation, and unexpected situations. Loading conditions on the blade are directly linked to hydrodynamic forces, maintenance, operating conditions, and corrosion effects. At the same time, these scenarios can vary with fluid-structure interactions, climate conditions, local site conditions, and maintenance and inspection schedules of the blades. The design and manufacturing category mainly represents the impact of the properties of composite materials, the geometry of the blade, and manufacturing process parameters. Similar to the other structures, tidal turbine blades are subject to deterioration and unexpected accidents during their service life, which significantly compromises the structural integrity of the blade. In Phase 2, a data management strategy was formulated related to identified four impact categories and investigated the possible methods of analysing the data. In this context, finite element analysis of composite tidal turbine blades was identified as the most appropriate tool to comprehensively examine collected data, prior to comparing the results to the field and laboratory-based test data. Mesh properties of the numerical models, test standards, instrumentation, and equipment used for field and laboratory-based structural testing of tidal turbine blades, as well as the accuracy of data acquisition systems, influence the comparison of these results. Finally, with the information gathered, as well as knowledge and experience in the field, a method for estimating the residual strength and remaining fatigue life of tidal turbines at each stage of their operation was formulated. The model will undergo a series of extensive validation processes using experimental testing datasets and will be used in the future to develop vulnerability curves related to the remaining structural life of the tidal turbine blades.

KEDUDUKAN PEMERIKSAAN SETEMPAT OLEH HAKIM DALAM PEMBUKTIAN PERSPEKTIF HUKUM ACARA PERDATA

The purpose of this study is to find out how the position of local examinations carried out by judges in proving the perspective of civil procedural law and what are the obstacles and the level of difficulty faced by judges in Indonesia in conducting local examinations. This research is library research, namely using data in the form of books, laws, articles, journals and other literature related to the title, while the technique and data collection is to collect various ideas, theories and concepts from various literature that focuses on the process comparison between the arguments, articles or other laws. The approach method used in this research is the statutory approach and the conceptual approach. The results of the study show that the position of local examinations carried out by judges in the perspective of civil procedural law is very appropriate to be carried out if it is deemed necessary and reasonable to carry out the provisions in the SEMA to conduct local inspections in order to avoid difficulties in carrying out the execution of decisions at a later date and there are arrangements in place. in HIR and Rbg.

Role of local landlords in small-town high streets – a study of Trowbridge, UK

High streets are a vital part of national identity and infrastructure. Responses to high street decline need to encourage stakeholder engagement. The prominence of local retail landlords as a key potential stakeholder group in smaller towns has been overlooked. Through a case study of Trowbridge, a small town in the UK, this research investigates local landlords’ contributions towards countering high street decline and their attitudes towards the challenges of maintaining healthy small-town centres. Primary qualitative data are gathered through local inspection and semi-structured interviews with local landlords. Secondary quantitative data include ownership, vacancy and occupier type. Local landlords are of particular importance, despite engaging insufficiently with wider regeneration schemes. Local landlords demonstrate a strong awareness of the causes of high street decline and local issues. They also desire improvements to the current conditions of the high street, for both philanthropic and business reasons. The authors conclude that local landlords are a significant group with the credible potential to implement changes. This informs analyses of other towns struggling to reinvigorate their centres. While the case study provides a rich picture and the results are largely generalisable, further research is needed to understand more about the role of local landlords across similar towns with respective idiosyncrasies.

Detecting Inaccurate Sensors on a Large-Scale Sensor Network Using Centralized and Localized Graph Neural Networks

This paper conducts an empirical study on detecting faulty sensors in a large-scale sensor network containing approximately 10, 000 sensors distributed over 36, 000 km <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> . First, we discuss the practical challenge of this task. We compare rule-based models, traditional machine learning models, deep learning models without graph neural networks, and deep learning models with graph neural networks. The experimental results show that graph neural networks identify more problematic sensors in fewer trials than rule-based models and other machine learning and deep learning models. In addition to training the models in a central server, we also show that localized versions of the deep learning models with graph neural networks yield predictive power comparable to centralized training. Consequently, each sensor may perform a local inspection to identify its health status and only send reminder signals to a centralized server if it is self-diagnosed as a faulty sensor.

ScrutinAI: A visual analytics tool supporting semantic assessments of object detection models

We present ScrutinAI, a Visual Analytics tool to leverage semantic understanding for deep neural network (DNN) prediction analysis, focusing on models for object detection and semantic segmentation. Typical fields of application for such models, e.g., autonomous driving or healthcare, have a high demand for uncovering and mitigating data- and model-inherent shortcomings. Our approach helps analysts and/or auditors use their semantic understanding to identify and investigate potential weaknesses in DNN models. ScrutinAI includes interactive visualizations of the model’s inputs and outputs, interactive plots with linked brushing, data filtering with textual queries on descriptive meta data and an interactive similarity based image retrieval feature. The different views and data filtering options enable global and local inspection of DNN predictions. Overall, the tool fosters hypothesis driven knowledge generation which aids in understanding the model’s inner reasoning. Insights gained during the analysis process mitigate the “black-box character” of the DNN and thus support model improvement and the generation of a safety argumentation for AI applications. We present two case studies on the investigation of DNN models for pedestrian detection from the automotive domain.

The Fundamental Institution: Poverty, Social Welfare, and Agriculture in American Poor Farms by Megan Birk

Reviewed by: The Fundamental Institution: Poverty, Social Welfare, and Agriculture in American Poor Farms by Megan Birk Thomas Alter The Fundamental Institution: Poverty, Social Welfare, and Agriculture in American Poor Farms. By Megan Birk. (Urbana, Chicago, and Springfield: University of Illinois Press, 2022. Pp. x, 288. Paper, $30.00, ISBN 978-0-252-08645-8; cloth, $110.00, ISBN 978-0-252-04438-0.) In The Fundamental Institution: Poverty, Social Welfare, and Agriculture in American Poor Farms, Megan Birk reminds readers that “for generations,” from the end of the Civil War to the New Deal, poor farms “served . . . as the backbone of localized social welfare” (p. 2). At their height “in the early 1900s, there were at least 2,400 relief institutions operating in the United States,” and as Birk observes, most of these institutions were “farm-based” (p. 4). Despite its multigenerational existence and presence in numerous communities, the rural poorhouse has become a largely forgotten aspect of U.S. history. The Fundamental Institution provides a history of poor farms from their proliferation in the 1870s to the 1930s, when the increased federalization of social welfare brought about a sharp decline in their use. “To understand social welfare in U.S. history,” Birk argues, “it is necessary to understand poor farms” (p. 4). According to Birk, although much of the historiography of social welfare in the United States has focused on antebellum almshouses and urban poor-houses, expansive poverty relief efforts in the nation took place on farms in rural areas. The study of poor farms gives insight into how local communities viewed, managed, and dispensed social welfare over time as the populations of the farms and the character of the aid provided changed over the decades. The book is national in its scope, though it mainly looks at poor farms in the West, the Midwest, and the South. As Birk notes, “Poor farms tended to be white spaces, managed by white people for other white people” (p. 7). In the South, [End Page 375] “racism and discrimination” prevented nonwhite people from accessing poor farms (p. 4). Even so, Birk brings in their experiences when the sources permit. She has harvested extensive information from the records of poor farms throughout the country and the local and state agencies overseeing the poor farms, newspaper accounts, and the proceedings of organizations such as the National Conference of Charities and Corrections. The Fundamental Institution is very much an institutional history of poor farms with chapters devoted to local management and state inspections, conditions on the farms, and the role of superintendents. However, there is also a chapter dedicated to “the roles of women as employees and residents” (p. 13). As Birk notes, women “not only made up a critical part of the staff of institutions, but also used them for reasons related to abuse, pregnancy, and abandonment” (p. 13). Though it is primarily an institutional history, Birk’s book humanizes the narrative by examining the conditions that pushed people onto poor farms and by doling out the personal stories of residents. Birk shows how poor farms represented “one of the last vestiges of institutionalized Jeffersonian agrarianism,” linking farming, local control, and self-sufficiency (p. 10). Poor farms consolidated food, housing, and medical expenses, using the farm’s produce to help offset some of these costs. County farms initially provided relief to a population of mostly male, landless, seasonal agricultural workers who had difficulty finding regular employment due to economic depression, age, or disability. As industrial capitalism changed work, agriculture, and society as a whole, the poor farm changed with them. Poor farms took in a wide range of destitute individuals, including the elderly and the mentally ill, who could no longer be supported by family networks. As time progressed, the need for specialization became apparent, and separate institutions were established for the mentally ill. Many poor farms transitioned into nursing homes during the twentieth century. The Great Depression and the growth of federal intervention in social services sped these changes, resulting in the closure of many poor farms. Historical memory of the period between the 1870s and the 1920s has often viewed relief as coming from private charities that identified poverty with...