Local Environmental Policy Research Articles

Comparing a territorial-based and a consumption-based approach to assess the local and global environmental performance of cities

In the framework of pressing local and global environmental challenges it is essential to understand that cities are complex systems dependent on and linked to the rest of the world through global supply chains that embody an array of environmental flows. Cities are thus a complex articulation that intertwine local and global challenges which rely at their extended hinterland for their resource use and pollution emission. To assess the environmental sustainability of an urban area in a comprehensive manner, it is not only necessary to measure its local and direct environmental performance but also to understand and take into account its global and indirect environmental counterparts. This paper presents a comparative analysis of a territorial-based and a consumption-based approach to estimate both direct and embodied resource use and pollution flows for the case of Brussels Capital Region (Belgium). The territorial-based approach is based on local energy, water and material consumption measured data as well as measured data on waste generation and pollution emissions. The estimation of indirect resource use and pollution emissions (or consumption-based approach) is based on the regional IO-tables of the city-region of Brussels extended with multi-region input-output tables, taking into account the global flows of consumption. The comparison of these two approaches is particularly relevant in the case of cities that have limited productive activities and limited or no extraction of materials as the impact on the hinterland is often underestimated or neglected by local (environmental) policies which are only based on territorial-based figures. The results show that the indirect primary energy use, GHG emissions and material use estimated by the consumption-based approach is more than three times higher than local measures indicate. The embodied water use, estimated via IOA, was over 40 times higher than the local water consumption. These results show that territorial-based approach using local data underestimate the resource needs and pollution emissions of a city and can therefore be insufficient or even be misguiding. By mapping the origin of embodied flows it is in fact possible to illustrate the open character of an urban economy and its dependence on the global hinterland. Finally, this paper discusses the possibility and relevance to combine these two approaches to create a hybrid framework that measures the full environmental performance of cities both accurately and comprehensively.

INSTITUTIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE IN BRAZIL: THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS' PERSPECTIVE

ABSTRACT This paper explores some of the institutional factors that guide the environmental action of municipalities in Brazil. The starting premise is that there are particular institutional factors that empower the Brazilian state and society, guide processes and provide a unique profile to local environmental policy. Regulations for environmental protection are analysed from a historical perspective, taking into account the federal organization of the Brazilian state and its particular distribution of powers. Five factors emerge as the driving forces behind the actions taken by municipalities in relation to the environment: the federal status of municipalities, the inclusion of the environmental protection provision in the Federal Constitution, the lack of consistent funding for environmental policy, the coexistence of several regimes within environmental rules, and the discretionary power, held by environmental bureaucracy, related to the indeterminacy of environmental regulation.

Assessing individual susceptibility to short-term effects of particulate air pollution on mortality in Seoul, Korea

Introduction Health effects of particulate matter (PM) could differ by individual characteristics, however, the modifying effects are inconsistent across previous studies. Finding susceptible population is important for explaining regional and temporal variation in PM risk. The objective of the study is to investigate individual susceptibility factors to PM related mortality in Seoul, Korea, 1998-2012. Methods Using a generalized additive model adjusted time-trend, we evaluated the association between PM and daily mortality caused by all, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Stratified analyses by individual characteristics-sex, age, place of death, occupation, marital status, and education-were conducted to examine the modification effects. We calculated the 95% confidence interval of differences between effect estimates by strata. The strata with mean daily death count under 5 were excluded from the analysis. Results An increase of 10 µg/m3 in daily average concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 was significantly associated with increase in all-cause mortality by 0.18% and 0.17%, respectively. The effects of PM10 on all-cause, cardiovascular, respiratory mortality were higher in elderly and male. In-hospital death, unemployed, married, and highly educated people were more susceptible to PM10 for all-cause mortality than others. For cardiovascular mortality, PM10 risks were higher in out-of-hospital death, those with professional occupation, married, and those with lower education level. Susceptibility pattern of PM2.5 was similar to PM10. Conclusions Our results shown that, depending on the types of disease, risks in PM are different between subpopulations. These findings provide some information about individual susceptibility that may have implications for further health risk assessment of air pollution and local environmental health policies.

MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: A PROPOSAL OF INSTRUMENTS FOR DIAGNOSIS OF PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF SALVADOR (MAS)

The aim in this paper is to propose a model for mapping strategies of municipal environmental management for local environmental public policies. To do so, the study adopted a theoretical approach. More specifically, there is discussion on the concepts of public policies and the scenario of the Brazilian municipal environmental management, a brief history of the aspects that involve current national environmental policies. Methodologically, a bibliographical study was carried out through a literature review, which enabled the proposal of instruments for mapping actions and strategies of environmental management in the municipalities of the Metropolitan Area of Salvador (MAS). This theoretical study resulted in the creation of a model form that will be used by empirical researches for mapping the environmental public policies in the MAS City Halls.

Trading in waste: Integrating sustainable development goals and environmental policies in trade negotiations toward enhanced solid waste management in Pacific Islands countries and territories

AbstractThis paper provides a broad survey of existing literature on contemporary solid waste management (SWM) in the Pacific region to underscore an urgent and compelling need for improved SWM. Despite advances in waste management systems and funding for technical support and capacity building from a range of sources, waste continues to threaten public and ecological health and the economy in Pacific Islands Countries and Territories (PICTs). SWM in the Pacific requires innovative thinking in a challenging environment of remoteness, limited available land, fragile ecosystems, vulnerability to natural hazards and subsequent climate sensitivity. Many PICTs are under considerable pressure to open their markets up to trade liberalisation. Increasing links to the global economy through trade liberalisation could either further exacerbate waste management challenges in the Pacific or contribute to environmental protection and sustainable development goals. The authors argue that if the PICTs' urgent waste management challenges are to be meaningfully addressed, the region's leaders must ensure trading partners conform to local environmental protection policies and that trade agreements align with sustainable development goals.

Exploring citizen infrastructure and environmental priorities in Mumbai, India

Many cities worldwide seek to understand local policy priorities among their general populations. This study explores how differences in local conditions and among citizens within and across Mumbai, India shape local infrastructure (e.g. energy, water, transport) and environmental (e.g. managing pollution, climate-related extreme weather events) policy priorities for change that may or may not be aligned with local government action or global environmental sustainability concerns such as low-carbon development. In this rapidly urbanizing city, multiple issues compete for prominence, ranging from improved management of pollution and extreme weather to energy and other infrastructure services. To inform a broader perspective of policy priorities for urban development and risk mitigation, a survey was conducted among over 1200 citizens. The survey explored the state of local conditions, the challenges citizens face, and the ways in which differences in local conditions (socio-institutional, infrastructure, and health-related) demonstrate inequities and influence how citizens perceive risks and rank priorities for the future design and implementation of local planning, policy, and community-based efforts. With growing discussion and tensions surrounding the new urban sustainable development goal, announced by the UN in late September 2015, and a new global urban agenda document to be agreed upon at ‘Habitat III’, issues on whether sustainable urbanization priorities should be set at the international, national or local level remain controversial. As such, this study aims to first understand determinants of and variations in local priorities across one city, with implications discussed for local-to-global urban sustainability. Findings from survey results indicate the determinants and variation in conditions such as age, assets, levels of participation in residential action groups, the health outcome of chronic asthma, and the infrastructure service of piped water provision to homes are significant in shaping the top infrastructure and environmental policy priorities that include water supply and sanitation, air pollution, waste, and extreme heat.

Maritime pollutants in shipping and commercial European ports based on relevant physical and biogeochemical environmental parameters (IUPAC Technical Report)

Abstract Ports are closed or semi-closed coastal systems with limited water circulation, poor flushing and weak tidal exchange. They are characterized as pollution hotspots or areas of stagnation with a variety of maritime pollutants. Nowadays, shipping and port managers aim to address environmental risk in their operations, striving to achieve suitable environmental management systems and environmental policies. In that way, environmental impacts are thoroughly considered, actions to minimize and prevent these effects are identified while human activities for prevention, reduction and mitigation of harmful consequences are managed. The current project provides details of quality and performance indicators, based on physical and biogeochemical environmental parameters required to monitor and audit the effectiveness of environmental management system and environmental policy applied in ports. These indicators will be used as powerful tools strengthening sound decisions when developing, shaping and evaluating national and local environmental management systems and policies. The selected indicators are described and their monitoring processes are presented and discussed. Examples of selected best environmental practice from various port authorities are included.

The role of local governance and environmental policy integration in Swedish and Chinese eco-city development

This study examines institutional conditions for local governance and environmental integration. Four eco-city cases in Sweden and China are analyzed. The theoretical framework is based on theories of Environmental Policy Integration (EPI) and sustainable urban planning. Three categories of institutional conditions guide the analysis: Political will and commitment, Understanding, knowledge and experience, and Inter-organizational coordination. Despite strong local political will and commitment, considerable obstacles to environmental integration still exist, including political instability, lack of understanding, knowledge and experience, and insufficient cross-sector coordination. The current administrative organization based on sector-specific responsibility appears to impede cross-sector coordination for integrating environmental concerns in urban development. The establishment of temporary local administrative organizations may be an effective solution to break cross-sector barriers and generate integrated solutions to realize environmental objectives.

Study on the association between air pollution and mortality in İstanbul, 2007–2012

We examined the associations between the daily variations of air pollutants and mortality in the population of İstanbul, Turkey, using generalized linear models while controlling for time trends and meteorological factors over a 6-year period (2007–2012) at different time lags (0–10 days). Effects of the pollutants (Relative Risk (RR) on current-day (lag 0) mortality to the first ten days (lag 10) were determined. Data on daily mortality, daily mean concentrations of air pollutants of PM10, SO2 and NO2 and daily mean concentrations of temperature and humidity for İstanbul were used in the study. We found significant associations between air pollution and daily mortality from cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases, and total non-accidental causes in İstanbul. An increase of 10 μg/m3 in concentrations of PM10, SO2 and NO2 over 10 days of lag corresponds to RR = 1.0222 (95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.9957–1.0494), RR = 1.1639 (95% CI = 1.0279–1.3177) and RR = 1.0327 (95% CI = 1.0105–1.0554) increase of cardiovascular mortality, respectively. The associations for total non-accidental and respiratory mortality were also positive. Among the three air pollutants, SO2 was associated with the largest RR for deaths from cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease and total mortality. In conclusion, our study showed that short-term exposure to air pollution was associated with increased cardiovascular, respiratory and total non-accidental mortality in the city during 2007–2012. These findings may have implications for local environmental and social policies.

NET PRESENT VALUE EVALUATION OF ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION IN REPEATED REVERSE LOGISTICS

The paper is based on Grubbström’s MRP theory previously used in analysis of production processes “under one roof ”. This theory has recently been extended to model global supply chains by Bogataj and Grubbström, both scientists from the MEDIFAS faculty. Every production cycle is followed by distribution, consumption and recycling activities. In broad supply chains, transportation costs between pairs of activity cells have a significant impact on the overall net present value of the system. Possible flows inside or between subsystems can all be described with input-output matrices H and G. Recently published papers of the above mentioned authors describe the presentation of supply chains in a generalized form. Generalized input and output matrices H( )s ( and ( )s ( G hold technical coefficients and lead times. Lead times are split into 2 parts: production and transportation. As presented in the publication of R. W. Grubbström, L. Bogataj and M. Bogataj, and further research of these authors, the results of recycling activities in the extended MRP model are the recovered and the waste items, but in their model the recycling of the items is not repeated. Recovered items could be reused several times in future production cycles, reducing the need to purchase new items on the market as considered here. The waste items must be disposed of, requiring environmental taxes which vary among regions, depending on local environmental policy. If recovered, items must be delivered from the recycling facility back to production, and waste items must be sent to landfills. This process requires an expenditure of human resources, and energy at each activity cell plays an important role. In this article we show how the location of recycling facilities, the prices and quantity of energy needed and the environmental taxes can drastically influence the net present value for the entire system. We also present the method for evaluating cases where energy can be recovered during recycling or decomposition processes at landfills. It is also assumed that energy recovery can be stimulated with subsidized purchase prices, but generally, lower quality energy can be expected as an output of these processes. This paper introduces generalized input and output energy matrices, which describe these energy flows and their impact on environmental sustainability through the net present value of the system, which is the novelty in the extended MRP theory.

Strategic Interest of Malaysia's in Matters Concerning Policy on Antarctica

As members of the Antarctica Treaty 1959, Malaysia is aware of the stringent requirements in the Treaty Protocol on Environmental Protection 1991 (The Madrid protocol 1991). Malaysia is also aware of the weight on the economic factor as huge budgetary allocations needed to fund Malaysia's scientific research expeditions. Nevertheless, the membership resulted in the need to reconciliation local environmental policy to the Madrid Protocol 1991. This paper traces the development of Malaysian environmental policy pre and posts the signing of Antarctica Treaty, emphasizing the concept that affects the Malaysian policy in its attempt to compliment the Antarctica Environmental Protection Policy.

Environmental Policy in a Federation with Special Interest Politics and Inter-Governmental Grants

The paper explores the potential effect of intergovernmental grants (IGG) on sub-national (local) environmental policy in a federal structure. In the model, a politically-inclined local government receives campaign contributions from the polluters’ lobby in return for lower pollution taxes. A benevolent federal government uses IGG as an incentive to reduce the resulting distortion in the local pollution tax. IGG are formulaic transfers that are conditional on pollution levels—lower pollution in a sub-national jurisdiction relative to others translates into a higher share of the grant and vice versa. In equilibrium, the grant effect reduces the distortion created in the pollution tax by the lobby effect, and may even lead to a higher than Pigouvian tax when the local government assigns a large enough weight on social welfare and/or when the grant is large enough. Further, IGG result in the tax levels of jurisdictions becoming interdependent in an interesting way. Environmental policies in two jurisdictions may become strategic complements or substitutes depending on their relative pollution levels. The possibility of strategic substitution implies that federal welfare may not increase even when environmental policy becomes stricter in one state.

The Role of Risk Perception and Collaborative Management in Explaining Stringent Municipal Regulations - The Israeli Air Pollution Case Study

What influences municipalities to proactively enact more stringent environmental standards relative to the central state’s stipulated requirements? What is the role of environmental need (risk) in determining the level of action? And what is the relationship between objective risk indicators and subjectively perceived ones? Does Collaborative Management (CM) at the local level influence the stringency of local environmental legislation? This paper employs SEM analysis combining survey data from all municipalities in Israel with an analysis of local bylaws to address these questions. Doing so enables us to contribute the following insights to the research literature. First, we add to the thin extant literature on the role of municipalities in addressing environmental problems and construct a model of factors affecting stringent environmental regulation. Second, the study extends the very small number of non- US studies regarding environmental outputs in municipalities. Third, our study answers the call to investigate conditions under which CM enhances environmental achievements. Fourth, the study further contributes to understanding the importance of perceived risk for explaining local environmental policies and how they are influenced by CM. The results demonstrate the important role of both perceived risk and CM in influencing the stringency of local environmental regulation.

Explaining the Adoption and Implementation of Local Environmental Policies in the United States

ABSTRACT:Using a large national sample of U.S. cities the authors create an environmental policy index to explore the factors that explain the adoption and implementation of environmental policies at the local level. Using univariate, bivariate, and multivariate methods, these data indicate that cities with higher populations, more highly educated citizens, higher percentages of Hispanic residents, located in the West (and more specifically California), and that are central cities are more likely to engage in environmental policies. Furthermore, this article finds evidence of differences in engagement based upon the subarea of environmental protection examined.

Determination of the concentration of asbestos minerals in highly contaminated mine tailings: An example from abandoned mine waste of Cretaz and Emarese (Valle d'Aosta, Italy)

For the first time, this work reports concentration maps of asbestos minerals in contaminated mine tailings drawn using the results of Rietveld quantitative phase analysis (QPA). The investigated sites are located in the Valle d’Aosta region (Italy): Crètaz, the most important Italian magnetite mine, active until 1979 and Emarèse, one the most important chrysotile asbestos mines in Italy, active until 1968. The results of the study permit to draw the spatial distribution of the asbestos (chrysotile and tremolite in this specific case) concentration, useful to plan reclamation of the sites, with priority given to the areas with the highest asbestos concentration. Because of the complexity of the mineral assemblage, which includes, among the others, antigorite, chlorite, talc, and tremolite, the concentration of chrysotile was cross-checked using different experimental techniques such as X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), polarized light optical microscopy (PCOM), and differential thermal analysis (DTA). The accuracy of the results was validated by analyzing standard samples with known concentrations of chrysotile and tremolite. The comparison allowed to point out the advantages and disadvantages of each experimental method. At Crètaz, chrysotile ranges from 4.4 to 22.8 wt% and tremolite from 1.0 to 10.3 wt%, whereas at Emarèse the concentration of chrysotile varies from 3.3 to 39.5 wt% and tremolite from 5.9 to 12.4 wt%. Antigorite and chlorite are the major accompanying phases with variable amounts of other accessory minerals including magnetite, carbonates, talc, olivine, pyroxene, talc, and brucite. The results of our study are of key importance for the local environmental policies as the knowledge of the spatial distribution of the asbestos concentration allows to plan a detailed reclamation agenda of the contaminated sites. The spots with the highest surface contamination of both chrysotile and tremolite were identified and classified as priority areas in the reclamation plan.

AIR POLLUTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN LAGOS, NIGERIA: NEEDS FOR PROACTIVE APPROACHES TO RISK MANAGEMENT AND ADAPTATION

The significance of air pollution as one of the con temporary issues and accelerating factors that prop el climate change in both developed and developing countries cannot be overemphasized. The problem of air pollution has seemingly become intractable with the incessant failure of both global and local environmental policies purportedly emplaced to addr ess its devastating trend, particularly in growing megacities of the world. The devastating effects of the phenomenon are more pronounced in megacities of developing countries than in developed ones. Lag os, as an industrialized, commercialized and an emerging megacity in Nigeria, has been subjected to several predictions of the negative impacts of changing climatic conditions partly caused by ubiqu itous air pollution. Efforts at stemming the tide o f the increasing challenges of air pollution worldwide ha s significantly been thwarted by inadequate funding , hence the need to review the literature on the envi ronmental implications of growing air pollution, i ts contributions to climate change and its negative im pacts on the lives and properties of teeming inhabitants of Lagos. A review like this will provi de a synthesis of knowledge and information on mitigative and adaptive measures that can be adopte d to minimize the impacts of air pollution on the mega city.This study utilizes consciously selected and current literatures on the subject matter and f ound that Lagos inhabitants have been vulnerable to virt ually all forms of damaging effects of climate chan ge majorly propelled by seemingly uncontrollable air p ollution. This implies that the situation requires proactive measures, otherwise, avoidable loss of li ves and large scale destruction of properties may b e inevitable. The paper therefore advocates involveme nt of all stakeholders in both mitigation and adaptation measures to climate change through enhancement of indigenous knowledge and creation of awareness among citizens about the need to be consc ious of their carbon foot prints.

Desertificazione e territorio: una proposta di valutazione delle risposte di policy

Land degradation is influenced by rapidly changing environmental and socio-economic conditions. This study estimates the sensitivity of Italian territory in the 1990s and 2000s based on socio-economic and environmental indicators, evaluating the possible influence of a set of over ten variables representing possible integrated governance approaches. As the sensitivity increased, the selected approach variables turned out to be only partially associated with this process, suggesting the need for better integration between local environmental and socioeconomic policies to enhance the effectiveness of strategies to mitigate complex phenomena like the desertification of the Mediterranean basin.

Regional nitrogen oxides emission trends in East Asia observed from space

Abstract. Due to changing economic activity, emissions of air pollutants in East Asia are changing rapidly in space and time. Monthly emission estimates of nitrogen oxides derived from satellite observations provide valuable insight into the evolution of anthropogenic activity on a regional scale. We present the first results of a new emission estimation algorithm, specifically designed to use daily satellite observations of column concentrations for fast updates of emissions of short-lived atmospheric constituents on a mesoscopic scale (~ 0.25° × 0.25°). The algorithm is used to construct a monthly NOx emission time series for the period 2007–2011 from tropospheric NO2 observations of GOME-2 for East Chinese provinces and surrounding countries. The new emission estimates correspond well with the bottom-up inventory of EDGAR v4.2, but are smaller than the inventories of INTEX-B and MEIC. They reveal a strong positive trend during 2007–2011 for almost all Chinese provinces, related to the country's economic development. We find a 41% increment of NOx emissions in East China during this period, which shows the need to update emission inventories in this region on a regular basis. Negative emission trends are found in Japan and South Korea, which can be attributed to a combined effect of local environmental policy and global economic crises. Analysis of seasonal variation distinguishes between regions with dominant anthropogenic or biogenic emissions. For regions with a mixed anthropogenic and biogenic signature, the opposite seasonality can be used for an estimation of the separate emission contributions. Finally, the non-local concentration/emission relationships calculated by the algorithm are used to quantify the direct effect of regional NOx emissions on tropospheric NO2 concentrations outside the region. For regions such as North Korea and the Beijing municipality, a substantial part of the tropospheric NO2 originates from emissions elsewhere.

Civil Society and Sustainable Cities

In the modern American city, who determines environmental policy? Cities have undergone fundamental change in both their economies and populations. In terms of political forces, our expectation is that across a range of cities, where nonprofit environmental groups have been included or incorporated into the local policymaking process, there is greater commitment to environmental protection, and more extensive adoption and implementation of local policies and programs designed to protect the environment. To test this idea, we draw on our own research that combines two original data sets. First, we have collected information on what programs and policies are in place in America’s large cities. Second, for 50 large American cities, we have also surveyed top city administrators. We find that inclusion of environmental groups in city policymaking is strongly linked to city administrators’ perceptions of city commitment to environmental protection. The number of local environmental protection policies and programs also demonstrates a strong relationship to inclusion of environmental groups in city policymaking.

How Local Politics Shape Federal Policy: Business, Power, and the Environment in Twentieth-Century Los Angeles

Sarah S. Elkind argues that the intense interest-group politics of local, regional, and national environmental policy during the mid-twentieth century demonstrate the disproportionate (though not hegemonic) influence of business organizations along with increasing criticism of federal power—a combination she subsumes under the rubric of localism. Departing from Los Angeles in the 1920s and ending in Washington, D.C., in the 1950s, Elkind analyzes five battles over pollution control and resource use. The composite portrait reveals a pluralism of neither the virtuous Madisonian variety nor the pragmatic census version of the postwar era; instead, Elkind details a cynical scramble for advantage in which attempts to disrupt established “clientelistic” arrangements drew accusations of “special interest” at the local level and “socialism” at the federal level. Conflict among economic groups, rather than simple elitism, lies at the heart of Elkind's stories: a public-beach movement pitted oil producers against real estate interests; household incinerators, automobiles, and heavy industries contributed to smog, prompting efforts by homeowners and manufacturers to impose restrictions on each other rather than themselves; upstream El Monte fought downstream Long Beach over flood control on the San Gabriel River; and Arizona agriculture competed with southern California's Imperial Valley and power-hungry cities over the Hoover Dam. Elkind hints that an insufficiently inclusive political process minimized the influence of less organized interests in these fights, though it is hard to see what the addition of more voices would have achieved, since the system (at all levels) seemed incapable of satisfactorily incorporating the groups that did manage to be heard. That “beleaguered” officials should gravitate toward organizations that provided “political services” such as “information, policy ideas, and allies” is, therefore, neither surprising nor especially sinister: an aggregator of interests such as the Los Angeles Area Chamber of Commerce, though never quite capable of offering a consensus, was a godsend in debates that wore on for decades (pp. 52, 2, 80).