Loading Rate Research Articles

Effect of nozzle diameter and raster orientation on tensile and fracture behavior of FDM‐PLA specimens under mixed‐mode I/II loading

AbstractFused deposition modeling (FDM) is a material extrusion technique that works by extruding molten filament on a heated platform. In this method, several manufacturing parameters are engaged which affect the mechanical performance of printed parts. In this study, the effects of nozzle diameter on tensile (under two loading rates) and mixed‐mode I/II fracture behavior of printed specimens were examined. The obtained results revealed that testing speed had a minor effect on basic mechanical properties. For instance, ultimate tensile strengths of tensile specimens printed with 1 mm nozzle diameter were 32.56 and 39.71 MPa for test speeds of 1 and 5 mm/min, respectively. Higher nozzle diameters resulted in higher mechanical properties and fracture resistance (e.g., specimens printed with 45/−45° raster angle with 0.4 and 1 mm nozzle diameters indicated fracture loads of 4520 and 5071 N, respectively). Besides, fracture loads were predicted through the equivalent material concept coupled with J‐integral method.

Interspecies electron transfer regulation in a stage-separated anaerobic digestion system: The role of inoculum strategies, activated carbon integration, and organic loading rate adjustment

Understanding and regulation of interspecies electron transfer, including hydrogen-mediated interspecies electron transfer (MIET) and direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET), is crucial for enhancing anaerobic digestion (AD). In this study, MIET and DIET were regulated in a multistage anaerobic hythane reactor (MAHR) via inoculum management, activated carbon (AC) addition, and organic loading rate (OLR) adjustment. The operational stability, organic removal, and methane production can be enhanced, with AC addition in the methane production zone (Mm) (RpCMm and RnpCMm). The reactors of RpCMm and RnpCMm achieved start-up within 20 days and showed a 20 % and 104 % increase in maximum methane production rates, respectively. Microbial community characteristics confirmed that AC in Mm could facilitate DIET establishment, but its addition in Mh could not. This assertion was supported by the observed tighter and more positive correlation between biofilm conductivity and DIET-related microbes in RpCMm and RnpCMm, as opposed to RpCMh and RnpCMh. Further, the dual drive of DIET and MIET was revealed through the comprehensive analysis of operational performances and microbial community with the structure equation model. The electron fluxes analysis highlighted a dynamic shift of DIET and MIET in the methanogenic stage with AC addition and OLR variation. The DIET was proved more efficient than MIET in Mm with AC addition and OLR below 40 g COD/L/d, while high OLR (80 g COD/L/d) favored MIET with lower methane production efficiency. The results of this study shed light on the nuanced characteristics of interspecies electron transfer, providing valuable insights for the further design and operation of stage-separated AD.

Unlocking potential: Exploring the methane production potential in anaerobic co-digestion of cassava wastewater and glycerol

This study aimed at evaluating the feasibility of CH4 production in a mesophilic (30 °C) single-stage anaerobic co-digestion of cassava wastewater (CW) and glycerol in an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor (AFBR) with mixing ratio of 50 % / 50 % CW/Gly on a (chemical oxygen demand)COD basis. Thus, the following strategy was used: increasing the organic loading rate (OLR) (1–20 g COD.L−1.d−1) by increasing the substrate concentration (1–20 g COD.L−1) and applying a hydraulic detention time (HRT) of 24 h. The AFBR presented a maximum methane (CH4) content of 88.38±1.94 % and a CH4 yield (MY) of 293.48±18.37 mL of CH4.mL−1CODrem in the OLR of 1 g COD.L−1.d−1 and the maximum methane production rate (MPR) of 62.09±2.75 mL of CH4.L−1.h−1 in the OLR of 20 g COD.L−1.d−1. The conversion of glycerol and carbohydrates remained above 91±0.54 % and 82±2.79 %, respectively, and the COD conversion was above 80±0.65 %. The main metabolites were HAc, HPr, HBu, EtOH and HVa. The most abundant genera identified in the AFBR were Izemoplasmatales and Enterobacteriaceae for the bacteria domain, and Methanosaeta, Methanobacterium for the archaea domain. The single-stage system is robust and can operate with higher OLR without reducing the efficiency of wastewater treatment and CH4 production.

Correlations between moisture expansion and flexural properties of bamboo strips in response to different loading rates

AbstractBamboo and bamboo products, known for their hygroscopic nature, exhibit sensitivity to different loading rates in dry conditions. However, with the increasing prevalence of heavy and extended precipitation events due to global warming, there is still a lack of investigation on the response of bamboo strips to various loading rates after being attacked by moisture. In this study, the bending properties of bamboo strips after exposure to extremely high-humidity environments were investigated to assess their responses to varying loading rates. Throughout different exposure durations, bamboo strips exhibited varying moisture contents up to 112% and evident volumetric moisture expansion. After moisture exposure, bamboo strips exhibited heightened sensitivity in flexural strength and modulus to loading rates, with the most pronounced sensitivity observed at 33.9% moisture content. In addition, a linear relationship was established between flexural strength loss and volumetric expansion rather than moisture content. Notably, the samples exhibited greater sensitivity in strength loss to moisture expansion under lower loading rates. These findings preliminarily elucidate how loading rates impact the mechanical properties of bamboo strips across varying moisture levels, contributing to understanding the deterioration in the properties of engineered bamboo products when exposed to high humidity and rainy environments with potential collision events.

A damage constitutive model for consistent description of static and fatigue behaviors of ultra-high performance concrete containing coarse aggregate

A suitable constitutive model for describing the mechanical behaviors of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) under various loading histories plays a vital role in analyzing its structural performance. In this work, a consistent elastoplastic damage model is developed for UHPC containing coarse aggregate (UHPC-CA) subjected to static and fatigue loads, in which the driving and alleviating effects induced by the inclusions of coarse aggregate and steel fiber are considered. For damage evolution, based on the acting mechanism of the non-uniformity of stress wave propagation determined by the loading rate on the mechanical responses of UHPC-CA, the loading rate is skillfully integrated into the damage evolution rule to achieve the consistent description of mechanical behaviors of UHPC-CA under static and fatigue loading conditions. Regarding plasticity growth, an empirical plastic deformation model is adopted to improve the computational efficiency of structural nonlinear analysis. To verify the applicability of the proposed model, a user-defined UMAT subroutine is further developed for the subsequent numerical implementation. The comprehensive comparisons between the numerical predictions and independent experimental results at both the material level and structural level solidly demonstrate the capacity of the consistent model to capture the main features concerning the mechanical performance of UHPC-CA subjected to different loading paths.

Thermosensitive and mucoadhesive gels containing solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with fluconazole and niosomes loaded with clindamycin for the treatment of periodontal diseases: a laboratory experiment

BackgroundPeriodontal diseases may benefit more from topical treatments with nanoparticles rather than systemic treatments due to advantages such as higher stability and controlled release profile. This study investigated the preparation and characterization of thermosensitive gel formulations containing clindamycin-loaded niosomes and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) loaded with fluconazole (FLZ), as well as their in vitro antibacterial and antifungal effects in the treatment of common microorganisms that cause periodontal diseases.MethodsThis study loaded niosomes and SLNs with clindamycin and FLZ, respectively, and assessed their loading efficiency, particle size, and zeta potential. The particles were characterized using a variety of methods such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Thermosensitive gels were formulated by combining these particles and their viscosity, gelation temperature, in-vitro release profile, as well as antibacterial and antifungal effects were evaluated.ResultsBoth types of these nanoparticles were found to be spherical (TEM) with a mean particle size of 243.03 nm in niosomes and 171.97 nm in SLNs (DLS), and respective zeta potentials of -23.3 and -15. The loading rate was 98% in niosomes and 51% in SLNs. The release profiles of niosomal formulations were slower than those of the SLNs. Both formulations allowed the release of the drug by first-order kinetic. Additionally, the gel formulation presented a slower release of both drugs compared to niosomes and SLNs suspensions.ConclusionThermosensitive gels containing clindamycin-loaded niosomes and/or FLZ-SLNs were found to effectively fight the periodontitis-causing bacteria and fungi.

Effects and molecular mechanisms of jet ablation and fuel corrosion on separation failure of the asphalt-aggregate interface in airport asphalt pavements

To guide the improvement of asphalt pavement durability in airports, the effects and molecular mechanisms of jet ablation and fuel corrosion on separation failure of the asphalt-aggregate interface were investigated in this study using molecular dynamics simulations and density functional theory method. Firstly, tensile separation behaviors of the virgin, aged, and fuel-corroded asphalt-aggregate interfaces were simulated under different loading rates to evaluate their tensile strength and fatigue cracking resistance, and the experimental data were also used to verify the reliability of the simulation results. Subsequently, the molecular mechanisms of jet ablation and fuel corrosion on the separation failure of the asphalt-aggregate interface were analyzed by calculating the work of adhesion, work of cohesion, flowability parameters, and intermolecular binding energy. The results show that the aged specimen has higher ultimate tensile strength and fracture energy, but its flexibility and fatigue cracking resistance are significantly reduced. This is because the polar oxygen-containing groups generated during high-temperature aging enhance the intermolecular binding energy of the asphalt, but this also restricts the diffusion of asphalt molecules, resulting in greater frictional resistance and viscosity of asphalt during shear deformation, and thus loss of mobility and self-healing properties. On the contrary, since the light and medium oils soften and dilute the asphalt, and also weaken the intermolecular binding energy of asphalt, the fuel corrosion reduces the ultimate tensile strength and fracture energy of the asphalt-aggregate interface system, resulting in insufficient overall strength and load-bearing capacity.

Varying removal of emerging organic contaminants in drinking water treatment residue-based biofilter systems: Influence of hydraulic loading rates on microbiology

Drinking water treatment residue (DWTR)-based biofilter is an environment-friendly and cost-effective technology for eliminating nutrients and emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) from natural water. This study explored the removal efficiencies of five trace-level EOCs and the associated microbial response of biofilm in two identical DWTR-based biofilters under varying hydraulic loading rate (HLR) conditions over six months of operation. The results showed that the most recalcitrant EOC (carbamazepine) was mainly removed by DWTR adsorption (7.8–11.0 ng g−1), while the response of the biofilm community to HLR significantly affected the degradation of 17α-ethinylestradiol, sulfamethoxazole, roxithromycin, and sulfathiazole (P < 0.001). A higher HLR significantly stimulated the production of extracellular polymeric substance and increased the stochasticity and diversity of community assembly, improving denitrification and the removal efficiency of DWTR-based biofilm for biodegradable roxithromycin (80 %) and sulfamethoxazole (76 %). In contrast, lower HLR led to carbon limitation and exerted substrate selection pressures, resulting in more deterministic and stable community assembly, with keystone species such as Bacillus enriched in EOC degradation-related functional genes. Moreover, co-occurrence network analysis revealed a simpler but more intensive interaction network among EOC degraders under the lower HLR condition. This interaction network facilitated the co-metabolism of influent organic carbon and the removal of more recalcitrant contaminants, 17α-ethinylestradiol (48 %) and sulfathiazole (37 %). This study offered a novel insight into biofilter management from a hybrid perspective of environmental microbiology and engineering science, highlighting the dynamic adaptation of microbes to specific EOC degradation under varying HLR conditions.

Microfluidic Electroporation Arrays for Investigating Electroporation-Induced Cellular Rupture Dynamics.

Electroporation is pivotal in bioelectrochemistry for cellular manipulation, with prominent applications in drug delivery and cell membrane studies. A comprehensive understanding of pore generation requires an in-depth analysis of the critical pore size and the corresponding energy barrier at the onset of cell rupture. However, many studies have been limited to basic models such as artificial membranes or theoretical simulations. Challenging this paradigm, our study pioneers using a microfluidic electroporation chip array. This tool subjects live breast cancer cell species to a diverse spectrum of alternating current electric field conditions, driving electroporation-induced cell rupture. We conclusively determined the rupture voltages across varying applied voltage loading rates, enabling an unprecedented characterization of electric cell rupture dynamics encompassing critical pore radius and energy barrier. Further bolstering our investigation, we probed cells subjected to cholesterol depletion via methyl-β-cyclodextrin and revealed a strong correlation with electroporation. This work not only elucidates the dynamics of electric rupture in live cell membranes but also sets a robust foundation for future explorations into the mechanisms and energetics of live cell electroporation.

Experimental Study on the Performance of Glass/Basalt Fiber Reinforced Concrete Unidirectional Plate under Impact Load

Fiber-reinforced composite materials have emerged as essential solutions for addressing the durability challenges of traditional reinforced concrete, owing to their lightweight nature, high strength, ease of construction, superior tensile capacity, robust corrosion resistance, and excellent electromagnetic insulation properties. This paper delves into the influence of loading rate and fiber bar type on the mechanical characteristics of concrete one-way plates through impact experiments on such plates fitted with glass/basalt fiber bars at varying drop weight heights. The test results reveal a direct correlation between increasing loading rates and escalating damage in fiber-reinforced concrete one-way plates, reflected in the progressive rise in peak deflection and residual displacement at the mid-span of the specimens. Notably, when subjected to higher impact loads, glass fiber-reinforced concrete specimens exhibit amplified deformation and intricate crack formations, consequently diminishing the overall deformation resistance of the plate. Furthermore, glass/basalt fiber-reinforced composites demonstrate notable vibration damping qualities, characterized by substantial residual displacement, minimal rebound, and rapid decay following vibration stimulation. Overall, glass fiber-reinforced one-way plates display marginally superior impact resistance compared to their basalt fiber-reinforced counterparts.

A dimensionless capacity design method for combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP) systems based on energy matching performance

In this study, a capacity design factor was defined to evaluate the system design and off-design operation strategy, and the mathematical model was derived for the relationship between the load supply and the users' demands under different capacity design modes and operation strategies, and the influence of the key parameters (load demands, load rate, matching degree) on system integration and operation characteristics under different capacity design scenario was quantitative analysised. Furthermore, the impact of energy-matching degree and system efficiency on the energy saving rate (ESR) was discussed, and based on the user demands, an universal system boundary of the ESR was constructed. Finally, the energy saving potential in different scenarios was clarified, and a case study was conducted using a data centre as an example, and the optimal capacity design mode was demonstrated.

The power of Para sport: the effect of performance-focused swimming training on motor function in adolescents with cerebral palsy and high support needs (GMFCS IV) – a single-case experimental design with 30-month follow-up

ObjectiveThis study aims to evaluate the effect of a performance-focused swimming programme on motor function in previously untrained adolescents with cerebral palsy and high support needs (CPHSN) and to determine...

4D printing of lattice structures to test their behavior by repetitive shape processing cycles

This study thoroughly investigated the shape memory effects of 4D printed lattice structures influenced by repetitive shape processing cycles and materials variability. The structures were fabricated by an amorphous and semicrystalline type shape memory material (SMP) and subjected to time-temperature-based thermomechanical memory cycles. Shape programming and recovery characteristics for 4D printing were done inside an environmental chamber at a loading rate of 2 mm. min−1. The shape memory effects driven by SMP’s viscoelastic behavior and performance factors were studied by stress-free strain recovery experiments upon the interaction of thermal stimuli. The stress-free strain recovery analysis expressed, that the influence of repetitive cycles was exceptional and significant for both materials. Extensive investigation on shape memory reactive strain components (i.e., programming strain, residual strain, and thermal strain) reflected, with the increasing number of cycles, the shape recovery ratios of the first to fourth cycles increased from 82 → 100% of amorphous and 79 → 95% of semicrystalline SMP and then tend to stable thereafter. Contrarily, the shape fixity ratios of semicrystalline structures have shown a decreased tendency during the consecutive cycles from 100 → 80%. The successful execution of data-oriented shape processing cycles enhanced the potential of SMP-based lattice structures for their monotonous applications as intelligent devices. The time and temperature-dependent shape memory characteristics of repetitive cycles presented in this study are advantageous to model the viscoelastic behavior of such artful structures.

Failure behaviour of frozen rock with double ice-filled flaws under Brazilian splitting tension

Geotechnical engineering in cold regions frequently involves dealing with frozen fractured rock masses, particularly in the activities of strip mining and tunnel support design, where tensile failure predominates as the main failure mode in stress-driven failures. Seasonal freezing can adversely affect the performance of rock masses. To investigate the tensile characteristics of frozen rock masses, marble specimens with double parallel ice-filled flaws were artificially frozen and subjected to Brazilian splitting experiments at a loading rate of 0.001 mm/s. The influence of the angle of the double coplanar flaws and the rock bridge angle of ice-filled flaws on the tensile behaviours were numerically studied by RFPA3D (3D Rock Failure Process Analysis), a finite element method specifically developed for simulating rock failure. Results showed that as the angle of the double parallel ice-filled flaws increases, tensile strength initially decreases and then increases. Furthermore, in specimens with the double coplanar ice-filled flaws, an increase in the angles of the flaws and rock bridge leads to a gradual decrease in tensile strength. The spatial distribution of ice-filled flaws is a crucial factor that influences the failure mode after split cracking occurs. The ice filling and bonding mechanism controls the tensile strength and cracking behaviour of frozen rock masses. The findings of this study provide valuable insights and serve as a theoretical foundation for designing blasting parameters and disaster prevention in strip mines located in cold regions.

Investigating the failure mechanism of X-shaped non-persistent joints under uniaxial loading: Experimental and numerical analysis

In this paper, rock samples containing non-persistent cracks of ‘‘X’’- shape were prepared and experimentally studied under uniaxial compression. Then, the numerical simulations of these tests were established using dynamic finite element software (LS-DYNA). Various joint configurations are assumed and their lengths are considered to change from the center of “X” in different rock specimens. The cracks propagation patterns, the failure processes, and energy absorptions during the tests are studied. The gypsum samples’ dimensions were 10 × 10 × 5 cm and one “X” shaped non-persistent crack was provided inside each specimen. The tensile strength of gypsum samples was 1 MPa. The notch's lengths are similar in some three cases while the length of one wing of the crossest joint varied in two other cases. In two residual cases, the length of the two wings of the crossest joint was varied. The opening of the crack was 1 mm. Angel between the notch trajectories was 90°. The model was subjected to an applied axial load rate of 0.05 mm/min. Results show that the failure mechanism of specimens was affected by notch length. The larger notch has a dominant effect on the breakage mode and failure strength. Newborn tensile cracks originated at the notch tip and propagated parallel to the loading axis to merge with the model boundary. Both the crack initiation stress and breakage stress were decreased by increasing the notch length. The absorbed energy has a minimum value when two large notches with a length of 6 cm exist in the model while it has a maximum value when notch lengths are equal to 2 cm. The increase in notch length resulted in a decrease in the difference between strains associated with crack initiation stress and final stress, indicating progressive breakage. Whereas the difference between strains associated with crack initiation stress and final stress was increased by decreasing the notch length, therefore delay failure occurred after crack initiation in the model. The results obtained from both laboratory experiments and numerical simulations show good agreement in the failure progression.

Optimisation of the biological production of levulinic acid in a mixed microbial culture fed with synthetic grape pomace.

Levulinic acid (LA) is a polymer with a vast industrial application range and can be co-produced as a minor by-product during the biological production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). However, the influence of key parameters as tools for favouring the production of LA over PHA is still unclear. In this study, we investigated how several critical operational conditions, i.e., carbon-nitrogen ratio (C/N), organic loading rate (OLR) and airflow, can be optimised to favour LA accumulation over PHA production by a mixed microbial culture (MMC), using synthetic grape pomace (GP) hydrolysate as the substrate. The results showed that it was possible to direct the MMC towards LA accumulation instead of PHA. The maximum LA yield was 2.7 ± 0.2g LA/(L·d) using a C/N of 35, an airflow of 5L/min and an OLR of 4g sCOD/(L·d). The OLR and, to a lesser extent, the C/N ratio were the main factors significantly and positively correlated with the biological synthesis of LA.

Natural Fibre and Hybrid Composite Thin-Walled Structures for Automotive Crashworthiness: A Review.

Natural fibres, valued for their low density, cost-effectiveness, high strength-to-weight ratio, and efficient energy absorption, are increasingly emerging as alternatives to synthetic materials in green composites. Although they cannot fully replace synthetic counterparts, like carbon, in structural applications due to their inferior mechanical performance, combining them through hybridization presents a potential solution. This approach promotes a balance between environmental benefits and mechanical efficiency. Recently, the transportation sector has shifted its focus towards delivering lightweight and crashworthy composite structures to improve vehicle performance, address safety concerns, and minimise environmental impact through the use of eco-friendly materials. The crashworthiness of energy absorbers, typically thin-walled structures, is influenced by several factors, including their material and geometric design. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of recent studies focused on the crashworthiness of fibre-reinforced, thin-walled composites under axial crushing. It explores different aspects, such as their materials, cross-sections, stacking sequences, triggering or filling mechanisms, and the effect of loading rate speed. Emphasis is placed on natural-fibre-based materials, including a comparative analysis of synthetic ones and their hybridization. The primary objective is to review the progress of solutions using green composites as energy absorbers in the automotive industry, considering their lightweight design, crashworthiness, and environmental sustainability.

Effective characterization for the dynamic indentation and plastic parameters acquisition of metals

As a fundamental test technique for the mechanical properties of materials, indentation shows broad application prospects. Compared to the well-studied quasi-static indentation, relatively few and incomplete studies on the dynamic indentation test and characterization have been performed. In this work, a dynamic indentation test technique based on the split Hopkinson pressure bar system is developed, and the corresponding “three-wave method” is proposed to effectively acquire the time-resolved dynamic indentation load and depth. Systematic indentation tests under different loading rates and indenter cone angles are conducted on typical metal materials such as Cu, α-Fe, and α-Ti. Based on the dynamic indentation contact stiffness analysis and indentation theory the indentation hardness under different loading conditions are determined. A procedure for plastic parameter inversion of metal materials, including strain hardening and strain rate strengthening terms based on dynamic indentation, is provided. The effectiveness is verified by the traditional compression test results, providing a new method for characterizing the dynamic mechanical properties of metal materials.

Spherical g-C3N4@PDA nanocarrier for synergistic chemo-photothermal tumor therapy

In this paper, by wrapping the near-infrared (NIR) response polydopamine (PDA) as a nanocoating on the surface of spherical nano graphitic phase carbon nitride (g-C3N4), a multifunctional g-C3N4/PDA (CNP) nanocarrier platform was prepared. The π-conjugation system in PDA and the electronegative hydroxyl groups on the surface of CNP promote the creation of abundant active sites, which had a high drug loading rate of about 98.5 % for the electropositive GA. Due to the strong NIR reaction of CNP, the release of GA from CNP/GA can be greatly accelerated by the rising temperature, bonding disruption and charge transfer. Moreover, the photo-generated electron-hole pairs could be excited by the NIR effect of CNP, which promotes the production of ROS (·OH, ·O2– and 1O2) to induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells. Thus, the present spherical CNP nanocarrier with a combination of enzyme-mimic activity and NIR-responsive properties has a great potential for chemo-photothermal synergistic tumor therapy.

New insights into algal-bacterial sludge granulation based on the tightly-bound extracellular polymeric substances regulation in response to N-Methylpyrrolidone

Algal-bacterial granular sludge (ABGS) system is promising in wastewater treatment for its potential in energy-neutrality and carbon-neutrality. However, traditional cultivation of ABGS poses significant challenges attributable to its long start-up period and high energy consumption. Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), which could be stimulated as a self-defense strategy in cells under toxic contaminants stress, has been considered to contribute to the ABGS granulation process. In this study, photogranulation of ABGS by EPS regulation in response to varying loading rates of N-Methylpyrrolidone (NMP) was investigated for the first time. The results indicated the formation of ABGS with a maximum average diameter of ∼3.3 mm and an exceptionally low SVI5 value of 67 ± 2 mL g−1 under an NMP loading rate of 125 mg L−1 d−1, thereby demonstrating outstanding settleability. Besides, almost complete removal of 300 mg L−1 NMP could be achieved at hydraulic retention time of 48 h, accompanied by chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiencies higher than 90 % and 70 %, respectively. Moreover, possible degradation pathway and metabolism mechanism in the ABGS system for enhanced removal of NMP and nitrogen were proposed. In this ABGS system, the mycelium with network structure constituted by filamentous microorganisms was a prerequisite for photogranulation, instead of necessarily leading to granulation. Stress of 100–150 mg L−1 d−1 NMP loading rate stimulated tightly-bound EPS (TB-EPS) variation, resulting in rapid photogranulation. The crucial role of TB-EPS was revealed with the involved mechanisms being clarified. This study provides a novel insight into ABGS development based on the TB-EPS regulation by NMP, which is significant for achieving the manipulation of photogranules.