Building Load Research Articles

Comparative Cost and Design of Solid, Ribbed and Waffle Slab for a Three-storey Shopping Complex Using Prota, Orion and Spreadsheet

Cost is an important factor in choosing the type of floor or slab used in any construction. When a large space within a building needs to be covered without hindrance and supports, waffle or ribbed slabs are used. For all slab systems, the cost constitutes a significant portion of the overall cost of the structure. Therefore, this research aims to select a preferable slab system with the least construction cost for a shopping mall. Computer-aided design software such as Prota 2018 and Orion 2018 was used for analysis and design, and RCC spreadsheets were used to manually check the slabs. The results reveal that the Solid floor slab has more concrete volume and steel than the waffle, and the rib consumes the lowest least volume of concrete and steel among the three slab systems. Therefore, the rib slab is the most economical of the three slab systems since it uses the least concrete and reinforcement. The cost of a floor slab system ranges from 12 to 17% of the structural cost in building works, the percentages of the cost of the slab in a floor system is 17.84% for solid slabs system, 13.65% for rib slabs and 12.48% for waffle slabs of the total cost of a structure. It can therefore be concluded that using rib slab saves 17.95% and 7.46% of the construction sum when compared to solid slab and waffle slab construction systems respectively. In conclusion, it is recommended that ribbed slabs should be used for commercial building construction with more than 5KN/m2 live load in commercial buildings that spans up to 15m and more.

Mitigation of the impacts of electric vehicle charging on energy-star ratings for residential buildings in India

Abstract The star-labelling programme for residential buildings was introduced by India in 2020 and applies to all residential buildings with no lower limit on the built-up area or electrical demand. The energy-star label for a residential building is awarded against the notified standard by the regulatory body and electric vehicles (EVs) have not been accommodated as a load for residential buildings. The energy consumption of an existing residential building is taken from a study already carried out and compared with the requirement of the Indian residential star-labelling programme with an EV as a plugged-in load. An annual energy gap of 6060 kWh for the existing residential buildings considered in this study for five-star building energy labels increases to 7784 kWh if the EV load is added to the building load. The residential building will lose two energy stars if it caters to the EV load and, to bridge this energy gap, the replacement of existing electrical appliances with five-star-rated energy appliances, employing grid-connected rooftop solar photovoltaics (PV) and retrofit of the building envelope are considered. The techno-economic potential of rooftop solar PV and building envelope retrofitting for existing residential buildings is explored using RETScreen® and eQUEST software, respectively. The study establishes that the installation of rooftop solar PV can accommodate the additional load of EVs and can bridge half and three-quarters of the energy gap to achieve five energy stars for an existing building with and without EVs, respectively. It is the most economical option among the options explored in this study. The target Energy Performance Index is achievable by high-end energy consumers (12 000 kWh/year) by additional measures, the replacement of inefficient electrical appliances and building envelope retrofitting in addition to the installation of rooftop solar PV.

Integrative soft computing approaches for optimizing thermal energy performance in residential buildings.

As is known, early prediction of thermal load in buildings can give valuable insight to engineers and energy experts in order to optimize the building design. Although different machine learning models have been promisingly employed for this problem, newer sophisticated techniques still require proper attention. This study aims at introducing novel hybrid algorithms for estimating building thermal load. The predictive models are artificial neural networks exposed to five optimizer algorithms, namely Archimedes optimization algorithm (AOA), Beluga whale optimization (BWO), forensic-based investigation (FBI), snake optimizer (SO), and transient search algorithm (TSO), for attaining optimal trainings. These five integrations aim at predicting the annual thermal energy demand. The accuracy of the models is broadly assessed using mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), root mean square error (RMSE), and coefficient of determination (R2) indicators and a ranking system is accordingly developed. As the MAPE and R2 reported, all obtained relative errors were below 5% and correlations were above 92% which confirm the general acceptability of the results and all used models. While the models exhibited different performances in training and testing stages, referring to the overall results, the BWO emerged as the most accurate algorithm, followed by the AOA and SO simultaneously in the second position, the FBI as the third, and TSO as the fourth accurate model. Mean absolute error (MAPE) and Considering the wide variety of artificial intelligence techniques that are used nowadays, the findings of this research may shed light on the selection of proper techniques for reliable energy performance analysis in complex buildings.

Effect of thermal cycles on volumetric and shear behavior of sand–concrete interface

Energy piles are dual-purpose foundation elements that transfer the building loads to the supporting soil and act as heat exchangers for heating and cooling. Energy piles are subjected to heating and cooling cycles over days and seasons, resulting in cyclic expansion and contraction. The cyclic expansion and contraction bring about the modification of vertical stress and the increase of vertical displacements on the piles, in other words, the thermo-mechanical behavior of the pile, the soil, and the soil–pile interface is changed by the cyclic thermal cycles. Investigation to know the effect of temperature cycles on soil–pile interface characteristics has high academic and significant engineering values. This paper intends to investigate the thermo-mechanical response of soil–pile interface under different types of cyclic thermal loadings, to better understand the behavior of energy piles and their surrounding soils after the buildings are constructed and the geothermal activation. Direct shear tests are performed by using a new interface direct shear test machine composed of a temperature controlling device to assess the influence of different cyclic thermal loadings on the shear behavior of Fontainebleau sand–concrete interface. Direct shear tests are carried out after three different thermal loadings, i.e., a constant temperature of 13 °C, and two different kinds of cyclic cooling–heating​ (8–18 °C) loadings with 10 cycles (namely CT-1 and CT-2). The horizontal stress and horizontal displacement are evaluated after the 10 thermal cycles in CT-1 and CT-2 programs, and the shear results are then compared. The results reveal that the cyclic thermal cycles increase the peak shear strength of CT-2, however they do not significantly affect the residual shear strength of both CT-1 and CT-2. The peak/residual interface friction angle of the reference test is 29.5∘/28.4°, after the 10 cyclic thermal cycles, it becomes to 28.9∘/27.9° for CT-1, and 31.7∘/28.5° for CT-2.

Modeling and parametric analysis of the energy generation by the piezoelectric energy harvesters: A case study

Employing renewable energy resources, such as new harvesting technologies, plays a significant role in reducing fossil fuel defects. One of these technologies is the piezoelectric energy harvester (PEH), which converts the energy generated by mechanical vibrations into electrical energy. This paper remarks on the perspective use of piezoelectric tiles, which is a great stride in commercialization. It can also raise researcher’s awareness and investors’ willingness to use this technology. Besides, this research recommends conducting a sensitivity analysis of the energy produced by these tiles and investigating its various consequences (e.g., emissions and traded energy to the grid), which is considered an innovative approach. This study presents a model to supply the lighting load of a university faculty building using piezoelectric tiles. This research also developed a balance between energy production and consumption modeling, optimization, and sensitivity analyses on energy production by piezoelectric tiles. Our findings revealed that the piezoelectric tiles are able to supply 50% of the lighting load, and it can increase by 80% by doubling the energy production. After doubling the efficiency (providing 80% of the lighting load), the energy that is purchased from the grid decreases by 51.81%, and the energy that is sold to the grid increases by 134.85%. In addition, emissions of pollutants, such as CO2, CO, and NOx, are diminished by 51.77, 51.75, and 51.96%, respectively. The results demonstrate that improvement of efficiency of energy production (α) by 89.73% leads to the purchased and sold energy that equals 345.65 kWh.

Short-term cooling and heating loads forecasting of building district energy system based on data-driven models

Accurate forecasting of cooling and heating loads is critical for optimizing the energy usage of devices and planning for energy storage in building district energy systems (BDESs). Data-driven models offering high prediction accuracy and efficiency are receiving significant attention for addressing short-term load prediction problems. However, load forecasting for district building levels, as well as interpretable studies of deep learning models, are still the minority of existed research. To satisfy the cooling and heating loads forecasting of an actual BDES, a framework that includes raw data acquisition, data processing, model development, and evaluation is developed and analyzed. The performance of a multi-input-multi-output prediction strategy evaluated using five data-driven models, namely extreme gradient boost (XGB), long short-term memory (LSTM), gated recurrent units (GRU), and attention-added LSTM/GRU, is investigated. The results show that XGB performs the best, with CV-RMSE values of 14.51% and 11.95% for the one-hour-ahead forecasting of cooling and heating loads, respectively. In terms of 24-hour ahead prediction, the most accurate condition is “48–24” attention-added LSTM in both cooling and heating loads forecasting, where the CV-RMSE values recorded are 26.61% and 27.58%, respectively. The accuracy and interpretability of the models improved after an attention mechanism is introduced. The most significant enhancement in the prediction accuracy is reflected by a reduction in the CV-RMSE by 2.01%. The visualized heat maps of attention weights indicate the mechanism by which the models learn and extract the load patterns, where LSTM and GRU indicate different priorities. Further analysis of the attention weight distribution reveals the effects of building thermal inertia and load periodicity.

Development of Novel Inter‐module Connection for Composite Modular Tall Buildings

AbstractThe emerging modular building construction technique is gaining attention by researchers and investors because of its benefits such as short construction time, better quality control, minimal environmental effect and more economical. Composite modules have many advantages, including size reduction and improved fire resistance, over the steel modules, which encourage the application of modular construction on tall buildings. Current state‐of‐art lacks the proper connection technique for composite modular tall buildings. This paper presents novel inter‐module connection for composite modular tall buildings. Purposed inter‐module connection is very simple in geometric design, adequately strong to bear loads for tall buildings, easy to connect and disconnect, and applicable with internal joints and composite modules. Bolts through bolt holes connect modules vertically whereas gusset plate connects horizontally. Firstly, prototype is developed, and workability is confirmed. Performance and failure mechanism of proposed connector under tensile load are evaluated considering the effect of different parameters such as thickness of base plate, size and material of bolt. Results can be used to develop the design guideline for proposed inter‐module connection.

Mitigating airborne microplastics pollution from perspectives of precipitation and underlying surface types.

The issue of airborne microplastics (AMPs) pollution is receiving increasing attention, but effective solutions are still limited. In this study, AMPs were collected in pairs from an open space and under a tree (Ficus virens) in the suburb of Chengdu, southwest China, to investigate the current pollution status. The meteorological factors and underlying surface types were analyzed to investigate whether these factors could influence and mitigate the pollution of AMPs. The results showed that the fibrous AMPs accounted for the vast majority and the dominant polymers were polypropylene-polyethylene (PP-PE) and polypropylene (PP), with an average deposition flux of AMPs of 192 n/m2/d (22.41 µg/m2/d). Rainfall was found to have the prolonged scavenging efficiency for AMPs, which could extend to 8 to 48 hours after the end of rainfall, and this is a new insight into the relationship with meteorological factors. Interactions between the key underlying surface types and AMPs were also studied. The representative tree species (Ficus virens) had a low interception rate of 6.25% for AMPs and retained mainly small-sized AMPs and more fibers. The masses of AMPs loaded into Chengdu rivers could reach 1149 kg annually, with the unit mass load of 13.6 kg/km2 in urban rivers and 8.2 kg/km2 in suburban rivers. The masses intercepted by trees and bushes throughout the city only offset the masses loading in rivers, and open or sparse buildings were found to be sensitive areas for AMPs, which indicated the urgent need to control and mitigate the pollution of AMPs, especially in these sensitive areas. This work comprehensively analyzed the AMPs pollution from various perspectives and attempted to find ways to mitigate this pollution.

Sustainable thin shell analysis on structural foundation subjected to seismic loads

Shell structures are recognized for their exceptional performance in withstanding compression forces, often utilized as roof components. However, Southeast Asia experiences significant annual losses due to floods, with inadequate structural mitigation despite high population concentrations in seismic risk areas. Previous research explored thin shell structures as elevated foundations to mitigate flood effects on buildings. Unfortunately, the proposed shell design exceeded the material’s strength limit of 40N/mm2, limiting its feasibility. To address this, our study proposes a modified thin shell with a 600mm thickness. Finite Element analysis using LUSAS software evaluated the new design’s structural behavior under dynamic loads from earthquakes and flood-induced waves. Results demonstrate a substantial reduction of up to 99% in equivalent stress compared to the previous model [Model P]. The revised model [Model C] proves feasible in withstanding intense building loads, ensuring maximum stress remains below the concrete material’s strength limit. Implementation of these findings offers valuable structural mitigation, reducing flood impacts and enhancing both structural resilience and human safety.

Updating the Specific Electrical Loads of Apartment Buildings in Moscow and Moscow Region

Updating the Specific Electrical Loads of Apartment Buildings in Moscow and Moscow Region

Investigation of physical and mechanical properties of nanocarbon black-added lightweight UHPC

The high specific density of concrete significantly increases the dead load in buildings. Using pumice, which is a volcanic material, as an aggregate in concrete decreases the concrete's density. However, pumice causes a decrease in the mechanical properties of concrete owing to its porous structure. The improvement of the mechanical properties of concrete can provide material savings by reducing the cross-sections of the structural elements to be used in buildings. Ultra-high-performance concrete, which has been an important subject of studies in recent years, is an important construction material for civil engineering. In this study, the physical and mechanical properties of lightweight ultra-high-performance concrete (LW-UHPC) with pumice additive were investigated. Nanocarbon black was added to the mixture as 5, 10 and 15% of the cement weight. Significant increases were observed in the mechanical properties of nanocarbon black-added concrete. The addition of nanocarbon black to concrete at a certain ratio increased the compressive strength and flexural strength of concrete by 9.9% and 10.6%, respectively. In addition, it was observed that the sulfate resistance increased in direct proportion to the increase in the amount of nanocarbon black.

Investigation on the Aerodynamic Parameters of the Triangle Shape of Tall Buildings by Using of CFD Method

Wind loading in large buildings has always been a major challenge for civilian engineers. For this purpose, presenting the optimum exterior forms of a building exposed to the wind flow and analyzing aerodynamic forces, including resistance force, bending, and twisting moments, are challenging issues for designers. Nowadays, by combining various numerical calculation methods, like neural networks, genetic algorithms, and other methods, by changing some parameters, they optimize the external form of the building based on aerodynamic parameters. In this research, three optimized triangular models will be investigated using the computational fluid dynamics method. For wind flow, a velocity profile is used in the three simulations, and Reynolds’ Navier–Stokes average equations are used to solve momentum relationships. Additionally, the κ-ε method was used to calculate Reynolds stresses. The results show that the optimized N3 model is in the most optimal condition possible in terms of aerodynamic parameters such as drag, torsion moment, and vortices behind the building. Nowadays, the neural network algorithm is one of the most famous numerical methods for optimizing hull shapes. However, this approach cannot improve aerodynamic parameters either. Hence, computational fluid dynamics is used to deeply analyze. This research is one step forward to assess the optimized hull shapes of tall buildings. All tests are conducted using STAR CCM+.

Comparative study on the improvement of a distributed energy system performance by optimized operation strategy from design to operation

The operation strategy directly affects the optimal design and operation performance of distributed energy systems (DESs). Following electrical load (FEL) and following thermal load (FTL) strategies, for example, cannot achieve the flexible scheduling of DESs. As a result, this paper proposes an optimized operation strategy with the optimization objectives of minimizing operating costs and reducing carbon emissions. A multi-objective system optimization model with a minimum total cost and a minimum fossil energy consumption as optimization objectives are established based on the optimized operation strategy. The design and operation of the proposed DES are optimized according to loads of a public building in Changsha, and the results are compared with those under the FEL and FTL strategies. The study demonstrates that the optimized operation strategy can avoid using the gas boiler under the design conditions, which improves the system’s operating efficiency and lowers the total system cost and fossil energy consumption. Compared to the FEL and FTL strategies, the total cost reduction rate of the system under the optimized operation strategy is 1.44% and 1.69%, respectively, and the fossil energy saving rate is 3.25% and 2.3%. Different from the design condition is that the optimized operation strategy under winter and summer operating conditions can not only improve the operating efficiency but also avoid the waste of waste heat from CHP units and reduce the grid power consumption, which makes the total system cost and fossil energy consumption under the optimized operation strategy significantly smaller than those under the FEL and FTL strategies, especially than the FEL strategy. Under the summer operation condition, the optimized operation strategy’s fossil energy saving rate and total cost reduction rate are 6.76% and 12.01%, while the rates are 22.38% and 36.20% in winter. Even if the energy price fluctuates, the total system cost and fossil energy consumption under the optimized operation strategy are less than those under the FEL and FTL strategies. Therefore, the proposed optimized operation strategy can improve the system’s energy efficiency and reduce total cost under the design and operation conditions.

Applicability of a liquid-desiccant air-conditioning system in energy-efficient buildings with high latent load

To reduce global greenhouse gas emissions, the recent building trend is toward energy efficiency, achieved primarily by reducing the indoor sensible load. However, handling the indoor latent load has been overlooked. Reflecting this building trend, heat-pump-driven liquid-desiccant (HPLD) air-conditioning systems have emerged as a promising technology that effectively handles indoor latent loads in energy-efficient buildings with low indoor sensible heat ratios (SHR). However, the aforementioned building trend has not been simulated in previous studies. Thus, the performance analysis of HPLD air-conditioning systems has been investigated for only one type of building. In this study, the indoor thermal loads of four different energy-efficient types of high-latent-load buildings were estimated to simulate building trends. Then, the changes in indoor thermal comfort based on room conditions and energy consumption of the reference air-conditioning system (i.e., the vapor compression system) and the proposed HPLD air-conditioning system were compared as the energy efficiency of the buildings increased. The indoor thermal loads were estimated using TRNSYS18 software, and both air-conditioning systems were modelled via the integration of theoretical analyses and the effectiveness-NTU model. The simulation results show that the indoor SHR decreased from 0.8 on average in the reference building to 0.64 on average in the building with the highest energy efficiency. In the building with the highest energy efficiency, only 43.3% and 24% of summer operating hours were thermally comfortable when the reference system operated to meet only the supply-air target temperature and primarily the supply-air target humidity via the condensation dehumidification process, respectively. In contrast, owing to the decoupled control of air temperature and humidity, the proposed system could maintain a thermally comfortable room in all building types for almost 100% of summer operating hours. Finally, when both systems achieved the same thermal comfort satisfaction, the proposed system could save up to 33.2% of the operating energy compared to the reference system in energy-efficient buildings. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the proposed HPLD air-conditioning system adopting decoupled control is more efficient as the energy efficiency of buildings increases.

Variable Water Flow Control of Hybrid Geothermal Heat Pump System

Ground heat accumulation caused by imbalanced heating and cooling loads in a building can cause the heat-source temperature to increase as the operating age of a geothermal heat pump (GHP) system increases. An alternative system to improve upon this situation is the hybrid GHP system. This study reviews existing research on GHP systems and hybrid GHP systems, variable water flow (VWF) control, and coefficient of performance (COP) prediction. Generally, constant flow control is applied to the circulating pump to provide a flow rate according to the maximum load. The need for VWF control was identified because the hybrid GHP system is used mainly as a heating and cooling heat source system for partial loads rather than the entire building load. Previous studies on predicting the COPs of GHP systems developed prediction models by selecting input values based on mathematical models, collecting data through multiple measurement points, and utilizing data from production environments. The model can be limited by the field environment, and it is necessary to predict the COP using machine learning based on existing field monitoring data.

Wind Load of Low-Rise Building Based on Fluent Equilibrium Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Wind Load of Low-Rise Building Based on Fluent Equilibrium Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Dynamic simulation and exergy-economic assessment of solar thermal refrigeration systems in different climates

In this paper, the performance of solar-thermal cooling systems for air conditioning application is investigated in different climates of Iran. Diverse climate types are considered which makes the results applicable to other countries. Available commercial refrigeration cycles that are capable of integration with solar-thermal collector systems including the closed liquid absorption cycle, closed solid adsorption cycle, and desiccant cycle are studied. First, a solar and climatic map is proposed and the representative cities have been selected for each climate. Then, the climate parameters related to each region are extracted to create an hourly database. Also, the cooling load of a reference building is modeled based on the climate database, each refrigeration cycle is simulated using thermodynamic equations, and the dynamic model is generalized daily for the hot season in each city. In the last step, each cooling system is examined using an exergy-economic analysis, and technical and economic indicators are compared. The results show that the most suitable solar-thermal refrigeration cycle that can be installed in the central plateau and semi-arid areas of Iran is the closed-cycle liquid absorption system. The annual average exergy-economic factor and the annual solar fraction in this cycle are 0.7578 and 0.57, respectively. In the southern coastal areas, due to the high humidity and air temperature in summer, the solid desiccant refrigeration system with an exergy-economic factor of 0.6978 and a solar fraction of 0.2416 is preferred. The suitable solar-thermal refrigeration cycle in the cold and mountainous regions of Iran is a solid adsorption system with a silica gel absorber. The annual solar fraction and average annual exergy-economic factor in this cycle are 0.5158 and 0.7394. Also, in northern moderate regions, the solid adsorption refrigeration system with an average annual exergy-economic factor of 0.409 and average exergy efficiency of 0.12 is comparatively beneficial.

Experimental investigation on thermal performance of an actively cooled light shelf

Although the energy efficiency of light shelves has been studied, the thermal effects due to reflected solar radiation from light shelves have yet to be adequately investigated in previous research. The key research questions are whether this radiation results in additional heat load in buildings in tropical climates and how this can be reduced. In this work, the performance of an exterior aluminium light shelf is studied experimentally using a scaled prototype. The total amount of heat transmitted by the light shelf is about 40 W/ m2, which is close to the average thermal transmission of the envelope of a low-energy building. Experimental data analysis has revealed two components of the radiant heat transmitted by a light shelf: a) a direct instantaneous reflection of infrared radiations and b) secondary long-wave radiation resulting from the heating up of the light shelf material. The secondary radiation is a significant part of the overall heat transmitted by the light shelf. The light shelf was actively cooled by circulating water through hydronic radiant capillary mat tubes to reduce this component, and the radiant heat transmitted was measured. These experiments showed that an actively cooled light shelf could considerably reduce the secondary radiant heat transmitted through a clerestory window. A significant decrease in secondary heat transmission within a range of 3.8–5.9 W/m2 was observed when compared to an identical light shelf that was not cooled. This reduction is about 10% of the total heat transmitted by the light shelf.

Multi-objective optimization of battery capacity of grid-connected PV-BESS system in hybrid building energy sharing community considering time-of-use tariff

The use of renewable energy and storage systems in energy sharing communities relieves the strain on the grid and reduces the cost of electricity, making the design of community energy management strategies particularly important. In this paper, a shared energy storage operation strategy considering the time-of-use tariff is proposed for the grid-connected PV-BESS system of hybrid building community including factories, offices and dormitories. Aiming at maximizing the photovoltaic self-consumption ratio, minimizing the payback period and power transportation loss, the system is optimized by non-dominated sequencing genetic algorithm II to obtain the optimal battery capacity of each building under the designed strategy. The results show that when the total battery capacity of the community is determined, the photovoltaic power generation of each building and the building load are the main factors that affect the allocation of battery capacity, and the proportion of battery allocation in each building changes little when the values of other influencing parameters are changed. The photovoltaic array area of the building, the difference between peak and valley electricity price and the power input and output limits of the grid are the main factors affecting the optimal battery capacity and system performance. When the photovoltaic array area increases from 65% to 80%, the difference between peak and valley price increases from 0.52RMB/kWh to 0.82RMB/kWh, and the grid power output limit increases from 7500 kW to 9000 kW, the total optimal battery capacity is increased by 9.8%, 20%, 2.2%, the corresponding payback period is increased by 4%, 3.1%, 2%, the photovoltaic self-consumption ratio is increased by 3.3%, 1.9%, 0.2%, and the electricity transportation loss is increased by 6%, 21%, 2.4%, respectively. On the contrary, when the grid power input limit increases from 5500 kW to 7000 kW, the optimal total battery capacity, the corresponding payback period, photovoltaic self-consumption ratio, and power transport loss are reduced by 2.8%, 2.5%, 0.3% and 3.3%, respectively. This study provides theoretical guidance for community battery capacity optimization and energy scheduling design under the peak-valley policy of power grid.

Attenuation of the unsteady loading on a high-rise building using top-surface open-loop control

With the severity and frequency of significant weather events increasing, methods for alleviating unsteady wind loading for high-rise buildings are gaining interest. This study numerically investigates the three-dimensional flow structures around a canonical high-rise building immersed in an atmospheric boundary layer at different oncoming wind angles, using wall-resolved large eddy simulations. A synthetic jet located on the top surface is used as open-loop active actuation with the aim of suppressing the building's side-force fluctuations when exposed to oncoming wind variations. Three different frequencies of jet forcing are considered, all half an order of magnitude larger than the vortex shedding frequency. The behaviour of the synthetic jet and its effect on the building's unsteady side force, time-averaged flow fields and unsteady flow structures are investigated numerically. The synthetic jet actuation is found to reduce the side-force fluctuation of the building, enhance the downwash flow and successfully attenuate the antisymmetric vortex shedding. This was achieved to different extents across the range of oncoming wind angles considered and may motivate future attempts to explore experimental active control strategies for attenuation of unsteady wind loading.