Livestock Pests Research Articles

Contamination routes and mortality of the leaf-cutting ant Atta sexdens (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) by the insecticides fipronil and sulfluramid through social interactions.

Leaf-cutting ants (LCAs) of the genera Atta and Acromyrmex (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are important pests of forest plantations, agriculture and livestock. Toxic baits containing the active ingredients fipronil or sulfluramid are the main method used to control LCAs. Insecticide dispersion among members of an LCA colony during control with toxic bait is not well understood. The objective of the study was to determine whether self-grooming, allogrooming or touching behavior among Atta sexdens (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) workers disperses the insecticides fipronil and sulfluramid among members of the colony. The insecticides were topically applied on groups of A. sexdens workers and social interactions between ants with and without insecticide, and group mortality were evaluated. Behavioral analysis showed an increase in interaction among LCA workers as the numbers of individuals increased, with touches between workers being the most frequent behavior. The frequency of observed behaviors was higher in groups treated with sulfluramid compared with fipronil. The mortality of groups treated with fipronil was almost twice as high compared with ants treated with sulfluramid. The insecticides are probably dispersed by excessive touching among workers and subsequent self-grooming and allogrooming. These behaviors were responsible for the rapid dispersion of insecticides among members of the colony. Corroboration of the hypothesis that social interactions contaminate nestmates is a model for future studies on contamination of ant workers with active insecticide ingredients. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Insect Pest Control Laboratory of the Joint FAO/IAEA Programme: Ten Years (2010-2020) of Research and Development, Achievements and Challenges in Support of the Sterile Insect Technique.

Simple SummaryThe Insect Pest Control (IPC) Section and its associated laboratory (IPCL) is part of the Joint FAO/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture. Its mandate is to develop and implement the sterile insect technique (SIT) for selected key insect pests, and thereby to reduce the use of insecticides, to reduce animal and crop losses, to protect the environment, to facilitate international trade in agricultural commodities and to improve human health. With this aim, the IPCL has been implementing research in relation to the development of the SIT package for insect pests of crops, livestock and human health. This paper provides a review of the research carried out between 2010 and 2020 at the IPCL.The Joint FAO/IAEA Centre (formerly called Division) of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture was established in 1964 and its accompanying laboratories in 1961. One of its subprograms deals with insect pest control, and has the mandate to develop and implement the sterile insect technique (SIT) for selected key insect pests, with the goal of reducing the use of insecticides, reducing animal and crop losses, protecting the environment, facilitating international trade in agricultural commodities and improving human health. Since its inception, the Insect Pest Control Laboratory (IPCL) (formerly named Entomology Unit) has been implementing research in relation to the development of the SIT package for insect pests of crops, livestock and human health. This paper provides a review of research carried out between 2010 and 2020 at the IPCL. Research on plant pests has focused on the development of genetic sexing strains, characterizing and assessing the performance of these strains (e.g., Ceratitis capitata), elucidation of the taxonomic status of several members of the Bactrocera dorsalis and Anastrepha fraterculus complexes, the use of microbiota as probiotics, genomics, supplements to improve the performance of the reared insects, and the development of the SIT package for fruit fly species such as Bactrocera oleae and Drosophila suzukii. Research on livestock pests has focused on colony maintenance and establishment, tsetse symbionts and pathogens, sex separation, morphology, sterile male quality, radiation biology, mating behavior and transportation and release systems. Research with human disease vectors has focused on the development of genetic sexing strains (Anopheles arabiensis, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus), the development of a more cost-effective larvae and adult rearing system, assessing various aspects of radiation biology, characterizing symbionts and pathogens, studying mating behavior and the development of quality control procedures, and handling and release methods. During the review period, 13 coordinated research projects (CRPs) were completed and six are still being implemented. At the end of each CRP, the results were published in a special issue of a peer-reviewed journal. The review concludes with an overview of future challenges, such as the need to adhere to a phased conditional approach for the implementation of operational SIT programs, the need to make the SIT more cost effective, to respond with demand driven research to solve the problems faced by the operational SIT programs and the use of the SIT to address a multitude of exotic species that are being introduced, due to globalization, and established in areas where they could not survive before, due to climate change.

Resistance to insect growth regulators and age-stage, two-sex life table in Musca domestica from different dairy facilities.

Among the vectorial insect pests, the domestic house fly (Musca domestica L., Diptera: Muscidae) is a ubiquitous livestock pest with the ability to develop resistance and adapt to diverse climates. Successful management of the house fly in various locations requires information about its resistance development and life table features. The status of insect growth regulators resistance and life table features on the basis of age, stage, and two sexes of the house fly from five different geographical locations of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dirab, Al-Masanie, Al-Washlah, Al-Uraija and Al-Muzahmiya were therefore investigated. The range of resistance levels were 3.77-8.03-fold for methoxyfenozide, 5.50-29.75 for pyriproxyfen, 0.59-2.91-fold for cyromazine, 9.33-28.67-fold for diflubenzuron, and 1.63-8.25-fold for triflumuron in five populations of house fly compared with the susceptible strain. Analysis of life history parameters-such as survival rate, larval duration, pupal duration, pre-female duration, pre-male duration, adult and total pre-oviposition periods, longevity of male, oviposition period, female ratio, and fecundity female-1-revealed significant variations among the field populations. Additionally, demographic features-including the generation time, the finite and intrinsic rates of increase, doubling time, and net reproductive rate-varied significantly among the field populations. These results will be helpful in planning the management of the house fly in geographically isolated dairies in Saudi Arabia.

The genome of the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, reveals potential mechanisms underlying reproduction, host interactions, and novel targets for pest control

BackgroundThe stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, is a major blood-feeding pest of livestock that has near worldwide distribution, causing an annual cost of over $2 billion for control and product loss in the USA alone. Control of these flies has been limited to increased sanitary management practices and insecticide application for suppressing larval stages. Few genetic and molecular resources are available to help in developing novel methods for controlling stable flies.ResultsThis study examines stable fly biology by utilizing a combination of high-quality genome sequencing and RNA-Seq analyses targeting multiple developmental stages and tissues. In conjunction, 1600 genes were manually curated to characterize genetic features related to stable fly reproduction, vector host interactions, host-microbe dynamics, and putative targets for control. Most notable was characterization of genes associated with reproduction and identification of expanded gene families with functional associations to vision, chemosensation, immunity, and metabolic detoxification pathways.ConclusionsThe combined sequencing, assembly, and curation of the male stable fly genome followed by RNA-Seq and downstream analyses provide insights necessary to understand the biology of this important pest. These resources and new data will provide the groundwork for expanding the tools available to control stable fly infestations. The close relationship of Stomoxys to other blood-feeding (horn flies and Glossina) and non-blood-feeding flies (house flies, medflies, Drosophila) will facilitate understanding of the evolutionary processes associated with development of blood feeding among the Cyclorrhapha.

Apparent Densities of Stomoxys species (Diptera, Muscidae) of different Physiological Ages caught with Vavoua Trap differ With Landscape and trapping period

Stable flies (Stomoxys spp.) are common pests of livestock in the peri-urban rangelands of Vina Division of the Adamawa Plateau. No documented information is available on their diurnal dynamics in relation to physiological age and landscape. The main aim of this study was to determine the trap apparent density (ADT) of Stomoxys and associate it to their diurnal activity rhythm and landscape. Vavoua traps (n=12) were used for Stomoxys collection. Trapping was carried out for seven days i.e. three days consecutively in August and four days consecutively in October, 2016. Three traps were pitched in each of the three biotopes (river, cattle corral and gallery forest) of the four study sites (Galim, Mbidjoro, Velambai and Soukourwo). All female Stomoxys captured underwent ovarian dissection for the determination of their physiological ages (parous or nulliparous). A total of 218 Stomoxys were caught and identified into four species (S. niger niger, S. omega, S. calcitrans, and S. xanthomelas) with an overall ADT of 2.59 flies per trap per day and Stomoxys niger niger (1.13 s.n.n. per trap per day) recorded the highest ADT. Species richness was study site dependent. Higher catches of females 113 (51.83%) were made than that of their male 105 (48.17%) counterparts. Galim recorded the highest Stomoxys apparent density (4.90) as compared to other sites with a statistically significant difference (P<0.05). The proportion of parous 87 (59.30%) was higher than that of their nulliparous 46 (40.71%) counterparts. Parity differed with landscape and capture periods. S. n. niger was the most frequent in all biotopes and Galim recorded the highest ADT. The population of female flies was made up of adults (parous) with a bimodal diurnal activity rhythm whereas males had a unimodal activity rhythm.

Filth Fly Impacts to Animal Production in the United States and Associated Research and Extension Needs

AbstractMany flies are considered serious pests of livestock, poultry, and equids. These pests can negatively impact animal welfare and contribute to considerable production losses. Management of filth fly pests in particular, including the house fly (Musca domestica L.), stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)), horn fly (Haematobia irritans (L.)), face fly (Musca autumnalis De Geer) (Diptera: Muscidae), and little or lesser house fly (Fannia canicularis (L.) (Diptera: Fanniidae)), has been a research and Extension priority of veterinary entomologists for many decades. However, ongoing changes to animal husbandry and production practices, coupled with an increasing development of behavioral and physiological resistance to insecticides require renewed focus on new and more effective management strategies. This article is the first in a series of updates to these historical reports and the purpose is to serve as a resource for veterinary practitioners, consultants, funding agencies, veterinary entomologists, industry, commodity groups, and the scientific community working towards control of these pests. Companion articles will review individual filth fly species of importance to animal agriculture in the United States

Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae)—Biology, Management, and Research Needs

AbstractStable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) are global pests of livestock, companion animals, and humans. These flies inflict painful bites and cause significant economic losses to producers by reducing livestock production. In addition, they have been associated with the mechanical transmission of several pathogens causing disease in animals. Management of this species is difficult because: 1) their developmental habitats are often ephemeral accumulations of decomposing vegetation, 2) they can exploit cultural practices in many agricultural and urban environments, and 3) the adults are highly mobile. An integrated pest management (IPM) approach is required to effectively manage stable flies, including integration of cultural, mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical control options. The challenges of stable flies in different animal commodities are discussed, and current and novel technologies for control are presented. Lastly, need for additional research to improve stable fly management methods are discussed.

An early female lethal system of the New World screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax, for biotechnology-enhanced SIT

BackgroundThe New World Screwworm fly (NWS), Cochliomyia hominivorax, is an ectoparasite of warm-blooded animals and a major pest of livestock in parts of South America and the Caribbean where it remains endemic. In North and Central America it was eradicated using the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). A control program is managed cooperatively between the governments of the United States and Panama to prevent the northward spread of NWS from infested countries in South America. This is accomplished by maintaining a permanent barrier through the release of millions of sterile male and female flies in the border between Panama and Colombia. Our research team demonstrated the utility of biotechnology-enhanced approaches for SIT by developing a male-only strain of the NWS. The strain carried a single component tetracycline repressible female lethal system where females died at late larval/pupal stages. The control program can be further improved by removing females during embryonic development as larval diet costs are significant.ResultsThe strains developed carry a two-component system consisting of the Lucilia sericata bottleneck gene promoter driving expression of the tTA gene and a tTA-regulated Lshid proapoptotic effector gene. Insertion of the sex-specifically spliced intron from the C. hominivorax transformer gene within the Lshid gene ensures that only females die when insects are reared in the absence of tetracycline. In several double homozygous two-component strains and in one “All-in-one” strain that had both components in a single construct, female lethality occurred at the embryonic and/or first instar larval stages when raised on diet without tetracycline. Laboratory evaluation for phenotypes that are relevant for mass rearing in a production facility revealed that most strains had fitness characteristics similar to the wild type J06 strain that is currently reared for release in the permanent barrier. Testing of an “All in one” strain under mass rearing conditions showed that the strain maintained the fitness characteristics observed in small-scale rearing.ConclusionsThe early female lethal strains described here could be selected by the NWS Control Program for testing at large scale in the production facility to enhance the efficiency of the NWS eradication program.

Molecular detection of Dirofilaria spp. and host blood-meal identification in the Simulium turgaicum complex (Diptera: Simuliidae) in the Aras River Basin, northwestern Iran

BackgroundBlackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae) are known as effective vectors of human and animal pathogens, worldwide. We have already indicated that some individuals in the Simulium turgaicum complex are annoying pests of humans and livestock in the Aras River Basin, Iran. However, there is no evidence of host preference and their possible vectorial role in the region. This study was conducted to capture the S. turgaicum (s.l.), to identify their host blood-meals, and to examine their potential involvement in the circulation of zoonotic microfilariae in the study areas.MethodsAdult blackflies of the S. turgaicum complex were bimonthly trapped with insect net in four ecotopes (humans/animals outdoors, irrigation canals, lands along the river, as well as rice and alfalfa farms) of ten villages (Gholibaiglou, Gungormaz, Hamrahlou, Hasanlou, Khetay, Khomarlou, Larijan, Mohammad Salehlou, Parvizkhanlou and Qarloujeh) of the Aras River Basin. A highly sensitive and specific nested PCR assay was used for detection of filarial nematodes in S. turgaicum (s.l.), using nuclear 18S rDNA-ITS1 markers. The sources of blood meals of engorged specimens were determined using multiplex and conventional cytb PCR assays.ResultsA total of 2754 females of S. turgaicum (s.l.) were collected. The DNA of filarial parasites was detected in 6 (0.62%) of 960 randomly examined individuals. Sequence analysis of 420 base pairs of 18S rDNA-ITS1 genes identified Dirofilaria spp. including 5 D. immitis and 1 D. repens. Importantly, all filarial positive specimens have been captured from humans and animals outdoors. Cytb-PCR assays showed that in all ecotypes studied, members of the S. turgaicum complex had preferably fed on humans, dogs, bovids, and birds, respectively.ConclusionsTo the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of D. immitis/D. repens detection in blackflies. Results showed that S. turgaicum (s.l.) was the most abundant (97%) and anthropophilic (45%) blackfly in all studied ecotypes/villages and that DNA of Dirofilaria spp. was detected in the flies taken from six villages. Dirofilariasis is a common zoonosis between humans and carnivores, with mosquitoes (Culicidae) as the principal vectors. Further investigations are needed to demonstrate that blackflies are actual vectors of Dirofilaria in the studied region.

Methods for Surveying Stable Fly Populations.

Stable flies are among the most important pests of livestock throughout much of the world. Their painful bites induce costly behavioral and physiological stress responses and reduce productivity. Stable flies are anthropogenic and their population dynamics vary depending on agricultural and animal husbandry practices. Standardized sampling methods are needed to better identify the factors controlling stable fly populations, test novel control technologies, and determine optimal management strategies. The current study reviewed methods used for a long-term study of stable fly population dynamics in the central Great Plains. An additional study compared the relative size of flies sampled from the general population with that of flies sampled emerging from substrates associated with livestock production. Flies developing in livestock associated substrates are significantly larger than those in the general population indicating that other types of developmental sites are contributing significant numbers of flies to the general population. Because efforts to identify those sites have yet to be successful, we speculate that they may be sites with low densities of developing stable flies, but covering large areas such as croplands and grasslands. The stable fly surveillance methods discussed can be used and further improved for monitoring stable fly populations for research and management programs.

Biopesticide Research and Product Development in Africa for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security – Experiences From the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe)

Arthropod pests and vectors constrain the livelihood opportunities of people in Africa by debilitating production of crops and livestock and through transmission of vector-borne diseases. In the absence of effective alternative management options to tackle these pests and vectors, there is extensive dependence on synthetic pesticides for their management on crop and livestock systems, with significant negative impacts on animal and human health, and the environment. Biopesticides are effective and environmentally sustainable alternatives to synthetic pesticides. At the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), the Arthropod Pathology Unit (APU) was established for effective biopesticide research-for-development (R4D), underpinned by a large repository of arthropod pathogens, protocols for lab bioassays and field efficacy testing, and an effective public-private partnership to generate new biopesticide products. The focus of icipe’s APU has gradually transformed from basic to applied research leading to innovative, commercial products. Among the insect pathogens, greater focus has been placed on fungi, especially Metarhizium anisopliae, against key crop and livestock pests. Presently, three biopesticides based on M. anisopliae strains researched by icipe have been commercialized by Real IPM (Thika, Kenya) and are used on 132,994 ha in sub-Saharan Africa, with registration of additional products against animal ticks and the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda pending. Our R4D activities on arthropod pathogens increasingly include bacteria, microsporidia, entomopathogenic nematodes and viruses. Recently, icipe is expanding R4D towards plant endophytes and rhizosphere inhabitants. The Centre also embarked on understanding the diversity, roles and possible exploitation of insect symbionts in key plant pest and disease vectors. In addition, key entomopathogens of reared insects for human food and animal feed need to be identified and controlled through high hygiene standards during rearing. Further, research is aimed at integrating biopesticides not only with other integrated pest management (IPM) technologies but also with pollination services.

Identification and Structure Elucidation of Epoxyjanthitrems from Lolium perenne Infected with the Endophytic Fungus Epichloë festucae var. lolii and Determination of the Tremorgenic and Anti-Insect Activity of Epoxyjanthitrem I.

Epoxyjanthitrems I–IV (1–4) and epoxyjanthitriol (5) were isolated from seed of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) infected with the endophytic fungus Epichloë festucae var. lolii. Although structures for epoxyjanthitrems I–IV have previously been proposed in the literature, this is the first report of a full structural elucidation yielding NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) assignments for all five epoxyjanthitrem compounds, and additionally, it is the first isolation of epoxyjanthitriol (5). Epoxyjanthitrem I induced tremors in mice and gave a dose dependent reduction in weight gain and feeding for porina (Wiseana cervinata), a common pasture pest in New Zealand. These data suggest that epoxyjanthitrems are involved in the observed effects of the AR37 endophyte on livestock and insect pests.

Genomic analyses of a livestock pest, the New World screwworm, find potential targets for genetic control programs

The New World Screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax, is a major pest of livestock in South America and Caribbean. However, few genomic resources have been available for this species. A genome of 534 Mb was assembled from long read PacBio DNA sequencing of DNA from a highly inbred strain. Analysis of molecular evolution identified 40 genes that are likely under positive selection. Developmental RNA-seq analysis identified specific genes associated with each stage. We identify and analyze the expression of genes that are likely important for host-seeking behavior (chemosensory), development of larvae in open wounds in warm-blooded animals (heat shock protein, immune response) and for building transgenic strains for genetic control programs including gene drive (sex determination, germline). This study will underpin future experiments aimed at understanding the parasitic lifestyle of the screwworm fly and greatly facilitate future development of strains for efficient systems for genetic control of screwworm.

A Historical Review of Management Options Used against the Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae).

The stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), remains a significant economic pest globally in situations where intensive animal production or horticultural production provide a suitable developmental medium. Stable flies have been recorded as pests of livestock and humans since the late 1800s to early 1900s. Over 100 years of research has seen numerous methodologies used to control this fly, in particular to protect cattle from flies to minimise production losses. Reduced milk production in dairy cows and decreased weight gain in beef cattle account for losses in the US alone of > $2000 million annually. Rural lifestyles and recreation are also seriously affected. Progress has been made on many control strategies against stable fly over a range of chemical, biological, physical and cultural options. This paper reviews management options from both a historical and a technical perspective for controlling this pest. These include the use of different classes of insecticides applied to affected animals as toxicants or repellents (livestock and humans), as well as to substrates where stable fly larvae develop. Arthropod predators of stable flies are listed, from which potential biological control agents (e.g., wasps, mites, and beetles) are identified. Biopesticides (e.g., fungi, bacteria and plant-derived products) are also discussed along with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) against stable flies for several animal industries. A review of cultural and physical management options including trapping, trap types and methodologies, farm hygiene, scheduled sanitation, physical barriers to fly emergence, livestock protection and amendments added to animal manures and bedding are covered. This paper presents a comprehensive review of all management options used against stable flies from both a historical and a technical perspective for use by any entomologist, livestock producer or horticulturalist with an interest in reducing the negative impact of this pest fly.

Blackfly fever and dermatitis caused by Simulium kiritshenkoi: a human case report in Iran

BackgroundBesides the considerable role of blackflies to the transmission of many disease agents, these flies considered as annoying biting pests of wildlife, livestock, poultry, and humans. There are few literature reports of blackfly fever following Simulium spp. This study describes a case of blackfly fever and dermatitis following blackflies numerous bites in Iran.Case presentationThe present report describes a 25-year-old man that was attacked by numerous flies while fishing and camping near Namrood river in Firuzkuh County, Tehran Province, Iran. Pruritic dermatitis with marked edema appeared mainly on the hands and legs and subsequently, the patient’s condition worsened with swollen lymph nodes, joints aching, and 40 °C fever. The patient’s clinical signs and symptoms were alleviated by injection of intramuscular Dexamethasone Phosphate (DEXADIC®) 8 mg/2 ml after 24 h.ConclusionsThis study reported a human case with blackfly fever and dermatitis following numerous bites of Simulium kiritshenkoi, for the first time in Iran.

Women smallholder farmers off-farm adaptation strategies to climate variability in rural Savannah, Ghana

Climate variability presents an additional challenge to the agricultural sector and society’s livelihood due to persistent low rainfall and high temperatures. Women smallholder farmers who depend on agricultural production and have limited natural resources are observed to suffer the more from climate-related adverse effects. The aim of the study was to investigate women smallholder farmers’ off-farm adaptation strategies to climate variability in rural savanna, Ghana. The study adopted a case study design method with a sample of 187 women smallholde farmers. Multi-stage sampling was used to select the communities and women respondents for the study. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect the data. Quantitative data was analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science while the interviews were analyzed using thematic approach. Climate vulnerability perception index (CVPI) was performed to determine the sensitivity and exposure of women to climate variability and the need for off-farm adaptation. Again, Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance, test of linearity and Adaptation Strategy Index (ASI) were performed to establish off-farm adaptation strategies that were effective and of importance to the women. The results of the CVPI revealed that women were vulnerable to drought, flood and bush fires in their communities. The results further indicated that, due to women sensitivity and exposure to climate variability, they have engaged in multiple off-farm adaptation strategies to include petty business, poultry and livestock keeping, and agro-processing to respond to the varying climate system. The test of linearity revealed that, most of the off-farm adaptation strategies were significantly associated with climate variability. The ASI results revealed that, women farmers placed agro-processing as the most effective off-farm adaptation strategy to climate variability. Contrarily, women mentioned limited financial resources, poultry and livestock diseases and pests, and low market demands as constraints in their response to climate variability. The practical and policy implications of the study are discussed.

Exotic Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae) in the United States: Biology, Ecology, and Strategies for Management

Abstract The Asian longhorned tick (ALT), Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann (Acari: Ixodidae), is a three-host tick that was first detected outside of United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) quarantine in Hunterdon County, New Jersey, in 2017 and subsequently found in another 14 states. In its native Asia, and where it has become established in Australia and New Zealand, ALTs feed on a variety of hosts and are economically important livestock pests and competent vectors of multiple pathogens to humans and other animals. The degree to which ALT will become a persistent livestock pest or competent vector for introduced or existing pathogens in the United States is yet unclear. Because of its vast host availability, ability to reproduce asexually, known vector competence, and the presence of multiple life stages on hosts, the expansion of ALT establishment in the United States is expected, and is a significant public health and veterinary concern. In this paper, we discuss the biology, geographical distribution, life cycle and seasonal activity, reproduction, identification, medical and veterinary implications, management options, and future concerns in the United States.

Smart Farming Becomes Even Smarter With Deep Learning—A Bibliographical Analysis

Smart farming is a new concept that makes agriculture more efficient and effective by using advanced information technologies. The latest advancements in connectivity, automation, and artificial intelligence enable farmers better to monitor all procedures and apply precise treatments determined by machines with superhuman accuracy. Farmers, data scientists and, engineers continue to work on techniques that allow optimizing the human labor required in farming. With valuable information resources improving day by day, smart farming turns into a learning system and becomes even smarter. Deep learning is a type of machine learning method, using artificial neural network principles. The main feature by which deep learning networks are distinguished from neural networks is their depth and that feature makes them capable of discovering latent structures within unlabeled, unstructured data. Deep learning networks that do not need human intervention while performing automatic feature extraction have a significant advantage over previous algorithms. The focus of this study is to explore the advantages of using deep learning in agricultural applications. This bibliography reviews the potential of using deep learning techniques in agricultural industries. The bibliography contains 120 papers from the database of the Science Citation Index on the subject that were published between 2016 and 2019. These studies have been retrieved from 39 scientific journals. The papers are classified into the following categories as disease detection, plant classification, land cover identification, precision livestock farming, pest recognition, object recognition, smart irrigation, phenotyping, and weed detection.

Towards optimization of entomopathogenic nematodes for more service in the biological control of insect pests

Cost and reliability have hindered entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) from realizing their full market size. Research approaches continually evolve in response to these issues. They address EPN basics, but other issues are less recognized among masses working on these biocontrol agents. So, this review emphasizes on the due but less recognized roles to optimize EPN research and get better findings in nematode realm. Being almost impossible for nematologists to act united, they need to use standardized procedures which allow future reviews to be analytical and may build on them. Current atypical sampling procedures of EPNs may lead to erratic results. Comparable sampling may better enable grasping the interaction between EPN distribution and agricultural management to develop more swiftly field application techniques and can introduce EPNs’ populations to a more even distribution designed to enhance their efficacy. Functional sampling should be expanded. Furthermore, EPNs should be included in integrated pest management programs in ways that make them complimentary or superior to chemical pesticides. Further modeling of EPNs’ populations should be tried. The few transgenic methods applied in EPNs should be followed up to address non-stability of selected beneficial traits and markers of beneficial genes. Awareness-raising of more growers, cooperatives, and extensions of EPNs as bio-insecticides for both plant and livestock pests should be attempted in earnest via broad and deep training. We should better communicate and apply the positive trends and standardization in EPNs’ research. Required but less known services to optimize research in the nematode realm should further be addressed.

Improved transgenic sexing strains for genetic control of the Australian sheep blow fly Lucilia cuprina using embryo-specific gene promoters.

For genetic approaches for controlling insect pests such as the sterile insect technique (SIT), it is advantageous to release only males as females are ineffective as control agents and they consume about 50% of the diet. Here we developed tetracycline-repressible Lucilia cuprina transgenic strains in which adult females were fully fertile and viable on a diet that lacked tetracycline and all of their female offspring died at the embryo stage. The transgenic strains are an improvement over the strains we developed previously, which had the disadvantage that adult females on diet without tetracycline were sterile and died prematurely. This was possibly due to the low level expression of the effector gene in ovaries. In the strains developed in this study, the early promoters from L. cuprina nullo or Cochliomyia macellaria CG14427 genes were used to drive the tetracycline transactivator (tTA) expression in the early embryo. In the absence of tetracycline, tTA activates expression of the proapoptotic gene Lshid which contains a female-specific intron. Consequently, only females produce active HID protein and die at the embryo stage. Crossing the tTA-expressing driver lines with an RFPex reporter line confirmed that there was no expression of the effector gene in the ovary. These new embryonic L. cuprina transgenic sexing strains hold great promise for genetic control programs and the system reported here might also be transferable to other major calliphorid livestock pests such as the New World screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax.