Livelihood Diversification Research Articles

Determinants of household livelihood diversification in the uplands: The case of cassava production areas in central highlands of Vietnam

ABSTRACT The livelihoods of upland communities in Vietnam are rapidly transforming due to socio-economic and environmental changes. As a result, livelihood diversification has emerged as an adaptive strategy to these pressures, while agricultural commercialization demands greater production specialization. This study explored livelihood and crop diversification in the central highlands using survey data from 364 households and 22 in-depth interviews. The Simpson Diversity Index and Herfindahl-Hirschman Indexe were used to measure diversification levels, and regression analysis identified key determinants. Findings revealed moderate-low livelihood diversification toward non-farm activities and moderate-high crop diversification, with a trend toward industrial cassava specialization. Household-head age, education, perception of climate risks, and transportation accessibility were key factors influencing livelihood diversification. The study recommends policies to enhance young laborers’ capacity in agriculture and promote the development of non-farm livelihood activities, leveraging local resources for sustainable upland development.

Assessment of Species-Based Ecosystem Services and Its Usefulness in Forest-Savanna Ecological Zone

Forest ecosystems are the main species rich ecosystem on earth, having a significant role in the provision of massive benefits to the populace who depended on them for sustenance. This study aimed at assessing the forest provisioning ecosystem service and use in Ihiala Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. The objectives of this study include the identification of forest provisioning ecosystem services and their uses, people’s dependence for livelihood and quantity of ecosystem services supplied by community forests. Stratified sampling technique was used to select 8 sampled communities while Nikolopoulou convenience sampling technique was adopted for selecting sampling size of 200 persons. Also, 31 key informants were interviewed across the study area. The responses from the entire sampled questionnaire and interview were analyzed using Microsoft excel and statistical package for social sciences. The study revealed that a good number of the forest resources such as Elaeis guineensis, Garcinia kola, Bambusa vulgaris, Azadirachta indica and Brophyllum pinnatum have multiple uses. The result also revealed that the nature of forest determines the quantity of ecosystem service benefits supplied. Hence, those community forests with weak policies supply less than 40% of resources because their traditional laws of entering and harvesting forest resources are no longer effective, while those with strong policies like restriction into their sacred groves, forest reserves and swampy forests supply above 40%. The chi-square value of 352.873 with 28 degrees of freedom (DF) proved that there is strong relationship between the nature of forest and the quantity of ecosystem services provided. This research concludes that forest ecosystem in Ihiala L.G.A, supplies a wide variety of plant and animal species to the populace, which they basically use for timber, firewood, food and medicine. Nonetheless, without alternative and diversified livelihood, the supply is becoming unsustainable. It recommends that since palm tree and its resources are averagely abundant in the study area, there is need to support the establishment of basket making training centre in various communities and as such, make it an attractive skill acquisition programme.

Factors Promoting and Impeding Diversification of Forestry Resource-based Livelihoods in the Leh Himalaya of Ladakh Union Territory, India

Livelihood diversification through strengthening forestry resource-based interventions is an effective strategy for poverty alleviation and socioeconomic upliftment for downtrodden people. The study investigated the promoting and impeding factors that are crucial for the diversification of forestry resource-based livelihoods in Leh Himalaya of Ladakh Union Territory. The study is based on personal interviews with the selected 185 respondents through a structured interview schedule and non-participant observations carried out in the 9 sample villages of 5 blocks using a multi-stage random sampling technique. Descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentage, average, and simple ranking technique, were used to analyze the data. The findings based on their weighted mean score (WMS) and percentage score (PS) revealed that among the factors promoting the diversification of forestry resource-based livelihoods, forest resource self-sufficiency (WMS-1.98, PS-12.28%) was perceived as the most effective, while utilization of free time (WMS-0.73, PS-4.53%) was considered the least effective. Conversely, the most effective impeding factor for the diversification of forestry resource-based livelihoods considered among the people was labor-intensive and less remunerative livelihoods (WMS-1.96, PS-11.80%), while lack of cold storage facilities (WMS-0.74, PS-4.46%) was opined as the least effective. The insights into the promoting and impeding factors for diversification of forestry-based livelihoods highlighted in the study will be the basis for the planning and implementation of forestry programmes for forestry resource production and livelihood diversification in the Leh district of Ladakh. To make forestry-based livelihoods sustainable and reduce vulnerability, the prominent promoting and impeding factors must be exploited efficiently.

Livelihood diversification and household economic well-being in rural Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT This study attempted to measure the impact of livelihood diversification on household economic well-being and to examine the socioeconomic determinants of various livelihood strategies. The study utilised primary data collected through a structured interview schedule as well as key informant interviews (KIIs) and focused group discussions (FGDs). Stepwise linear regression was used to find the contribution of livelihood strategies in household economic well-being, while logistic regression was applied to examine the determinants of livelihood diversification. The study concluded that diversification towards sectors with high returns was the most instrumental in enhancing household economic well-being. The other social group, large, highly educated, and landless households were more likely to adopt sectors with high returns. Women’s participation in the labour force was positively associated with household economic well-being. This study highlighted the need for immediate policy interventions by filling educational gaps and equalising economic opportunities in rural areas in Madhya Pradesh.

Towards a livelihood-interdependence approach to framing adaptation in research and practice: evidence from farmers’ and herders’ relations in Northern Ghana

ABSTRACT Changing farmer–herder relations (FHR) are central to the social dynamics of climate change adaptation in African drylands, involving conflict and cooperation. While substantial literature has built a case for increased conflict of various kinds in West African drylands due to climate change stressors, this literature does not yet fully reflect the growing importance of more cooperative and interdependent elements of FHR. This study addresses this research gap through a case study of Gushiegu and Karaga Districts in Northern Ghana. Our analysis found growing cooperation between farmers and herders driven by livelihood diversification, sociocultural conditions such as increasing intermarriage, religious affiliation and the emergence of hybrid conflict resolution mechanisms that reflect a process of institutional bricolage. This deepening interdependence manifests in multiple ways, including knowledge exchange, management of common property resources and the strengthening of “bridging” forms of social capital. Our findings suggest a need to reframe adaptation in research, policy and practice to emphasize these beneficial forms of interdependence in FHR.

Empowering women through a gender-responsive seed multiplication program in Northern Malawi

Limited access to quality seeds remains a major challenge to improving agricultural productivity and resilience to climate change in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in Malawi. Over the past decade, local seed multiplication programs have emerged as a promising solution to enhance farmers’ access to quality seeds in resource-poor regions. Some of such projects have incorporated gender-responsive tools to bridge the gender inequality gap in the seed system. Yet there is a dearth of research examining the impacts of seed multiplication programs on farmers’ livelihoods and in promoting gender equality in smallholder communities. This dearth of research has resulted in the underrepresentation of seed multiplication in agricultural policy. To address this void in the literature, we conducted interviews with 40 participants and three project officers from a gender-responsive seed multiplication initiative launched in 2011/12. Through a feminist political ecology lens, we investigated the program’s impact on gender equality and smallholder farmers’ livelihoods. Our results highlight prominent benefits farmers derived from the program; including livelihood diversification, seed and food security, improvements in women’s household decision-making autonomy, changing gender and social norms, and improvements in women’s leadership opportunities. However, challenges like climate change and constrained market access threaten these gains. Given these insights, we argue that gender-responsive seed initiatives can deliver on gender equality while simultaneously improving smallholder farmers livelihoods. While we advocate for the integration of gender-responsive seed multiplication initiatives into agricultural policy frameworks in Malawi, addressing market accessibility and promoting climate-resilient agricultural practices is crucial to realizing these gains.

Livelihood Vulnerability from Drought among Smallholder Livestock Farmers in South Africa

The impacts of drought and climate change on agriculture have become increasingly apparent, and affect smallholder livestock farmers. Farmers’ livelihoods rely on agriculture; thus, they are vulnerable to the primary and secondary impacts of climate change. In South Africa, policies for increasing the resilience of smallholder livestock farmers who have suffered from agricultural drought have not paid sufficient attention to the level of livelihood vulnerability. This study assessed the level of livelihood vulnerability of smallholder livestock farmers in the drought-stricken Frances Baard District Municipality in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. The livelihood vulnerability of 217 randomly selected farmers from the municipality were determined using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and Livelihood Vulnerability Index of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (LVI-IPCC), which includes seven components and 34 subcomponents addressing livelihood. A high level of livelihood vulnerability, with an LVI score of 0.436, was determined and attributed to high-risk livelihood strategies, food, social networks, health, water, sociodemographics, natural disasters, and climate change. The LVI-IPCC of 0.04 also showed moderate vulnerability due to high exposure, high sensitivity, and low adaptive capacity, especially for the Phokwane, Dikgatlong, and Magareng districts in the Frances Baard municipality. Given continued drought recurrences, it is crucial for the government and other stakeholders to implement strategic and targeted sustainable interventions. The resilience of smallholder livestock farmers should be enhanced by increasing their adaptive capacity through diversified livelihood options while decreasing exposure and sensitivity to agricultural drought risks.

Climate Change Adaptation and Economic Vulnerability of Small Scale Fishermen in the Spermonde Islands, Indonesia

The general objectives of the research are: 1) To investigates the economic hardships faced by fishermen households in the Spermonde Islands due to climate change., and 2) To examine the adoption of diversified livelihoods as a tactic for confronting and adjusting to climate change among fishermen in the Spermonde Islands. Meanwhile, the specific objectives of the research are: 1) Calculating the economic vulnerability of fishermen to climate change, 2) Determining the adaptive capacity index (ACI), 3) Determining possible scenarios taken by fishermen in making decisions related to the impact of climate change on fishermen's income and 4) Determine co-development scenarios for adaptation to climate change. The research method uses in-depth interviews with small-scale fishermen on four islands in Makassar City (Barrang Lompo Island and Kodingareng Lompo) and Pangkep Regency (Ballang Lompo and Badi Islands) and data analysis to understand the impact of climate change on fishermen's livelihoods and the factors that influence vulnerability. their economy. The research results show that fishermen in the Spermonde Islands face various challenges due to climate change, including increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather, changes in seasonal patterns, and rising sea levels. This impact negatively impacts their production and income, and threatens the sustainability of their livelihoods. A factor that most influenced the economic vulnerability of fishing households in the Spermonde Archipelago was the existence an alternative income for a fishermen.

“No fish – no fishermen”: staying as a voluntary choice despite environmental risks

ABSTRACT While climate change may amplify global mobility patterns, most affected individuals voluntarily stay in their locales. This research studies the multiple forms of voluntary non-migration amidst socio-environmental challenges, focusing on the traditional fishermen community in southwestern Bangladesh. Through 25 in-depth interviews and two focus group discussions, the research uncovers that despite socio-environmental obstacles, such as the loss of the primary source of livelihood – the river, a substantial number of fishermen are determined to stay in the locality voluntarily. The households who voluntarily stay face livelihood challenges that coexist with their vulnerabilities. The fishermen employ diverse livelihood strategies to cope with the adversities and strive to maintain their livelihoods in situ. This study emphasises that voluntary non-migration could serve as both an adaptation strategy in vulnerable locales and an outcome of livelihood decisions, highlighting its fluid and dynamic nature. The implications of these findings are relevant for future research and policy formulation in promoting local adaptation and supporting the population choosing to remain in place in the face of environmental challenges.

Drivers of land use land cover change and livelihood coping strategies in Sheka biosphere reserve; a case of Shato forest, Southwest Ethiopia

It is evident that the means of subsistence of the community have a significant impact on the management of natural resources. This study examined the socio-economic drivers of LULCC and assessed the impacts of such changes on rural livelihoods in Shato forest, southwest Ethiopia. To map the land use and land cover, supervised classifications were used. The data were collected from 358 household heads through semi-structured questionnaires. A logistic regression model was employed to investigate the dependence of rural households on forest resources. LULC analysis results showed that about 308.29 ha of wetland and 3215.6 ha of natural forest were converted to other land use types during the last 30 years. The findings reveal that a household’s education level, household size, distance from the market, total land owned, skills and social network significantly affect their dependency on forest resources. Respondents gave high rankings to covariates such as erratic rainfall (1.70), market price (1.53), low crop output (1.28), and inadequate infrastructure (1.24). These covariates force rural communities of the study area into two major livelihood diversification strategies. These were crop and income diversification. The study comes to conclude that, the extensive and imprudent use of natural resources is a result of changes in livelihood strategies to cope up with the aforementioned shocks. Thus, the decreasing nature of forest resources results in covariate shocks in the study area and needs serious intervention mechanisms to tackle this trajectory of catastrophe.

Exploring the relationship between vulnerability and adaptation of rural households: disaster resettlement experience from rural China

In the face of environmental deterioration and to improve human welfare, China’s Shaanxi provincial government has launched one of the largest disaster shelter and resettlement projects in history. In assessing the likely success of this project, it is important to measure the vulnerability and adaptation of rural households in areas where the population experiences ecological and livelihood vulnerability. Based on 657 rural questionnaires collected in southern Shaanxi relocation zones, this study explores four categories of relationship between vulnerability and adaptation based on two aspects of livelihood resilience, namely specific resilience and general resilience. A multinomial logistic regression model is employed to investigate the influence of disaster resettlement on these categories. The analysis finds that: (1) there is a connection between these categories and household livelihood strategies, and rural households are more likely to adopt non-agricultural strategy or livelihood diversification strategy; (2) the livelihood resilience of relocated households is significantly higher than that of non-relocated household, with specific resilience being the main reason for the difference; (3) participation in disaster resettlement, centralized resettlement, and high relocation subsidies are not conducive to belonging in the “low vulnerability–high adaptation” category, while voluntary relocation is conducive to being in this category. These results have significant ramifications for China and other developing national disaster resettlement programs. It is critical for resettled households to reduce livelihood vulnerability and improve adaptive capacity.

How Can Ecological Product Value Realization Sustainably Enhance the Well-Being of Farmers? A Case Study of Xingyuan Village in China

Although recent years have witnessed a considerable increase in studies on the economic value of ecological products, the extant literature has overlooked the multidimensional enhancement of ecological product value from the perspective of farmers’ well-being. This research aims to examine how the Realization of Ecological Product Value (EPVR) serves as a crucial pathway to promoting the overall well-being of farmers in developing countries. Through a case study of a village in southeastern China, this research reveals that EPVR can enhance farmers’ well-being via various mechanisms as follows: (1) Economic solution to enrich farmers’ livelihood diversity, achieved by leveraging rural resource endowments and comparative advantages; (2) Fair social protection program enabling farmers to enjoy ecological benefits and further achieving urban-rural integration; (3) Environmental protection plan that balances production, living, and ecology; and (4) Grassroots governance tool promoting the governance ability to form collaborative governance model in a community of shared interests. This study offers theoretical support for enhancing human well-being through the realization of ecological product value in rural areas.

Climate change loss and damage from droughts: key insights from Fiji’s sugar industry

ABSTRACT Climate change loss and damage (L&D) due to both sudden and slow-onset events are a growing concern for vulnerable countries. Over the last decade, agricultural communities in Fiji have suffered a range of serious L&D from severe drought events. Through a grounded theoretical lens, qualitative research was used to gain in-depth insights into L&D from droughts in the Fijian sugar industry. In-depth semi-structured interviews (n = 68) were conducted in two Indo-Fijian sugarcane communities, Barotu and Toko settlements in Western Viti Levu, Fiji, and with key stakeholders from government ministries, academia, and climate change experts at the national level. Purposive sampling was initially used to identify smallholder sugarcane farmers and key stakeholders. Theoretical sampling further identified key stakeholders for the interview. Despite implementing various adaptation measures, the Fijian sugar industry has suffered severe L&D, including non-economic L&D (NELD) and associated cascading effects. L&D included reduced yields, loss of crops, and reduced income. NELD included deterioration of mental, physical, and emotional health, loss of hope, and uncertainty. Cascading effects included increased food insecurity risks and impacts on children’s education. Key policy interventions are recommended, such as removing adaptation constraints, developing drought risk profiles and early warning systems, investing in livelihood diversification, and engaging in new markets to facilitate social and ecological transformations that will promote livelihood resilience. Key Policy Highlights: Climatic and non-climatic stressors are inherently interconnected and interact in a complex and complicated manner to enhance social-ecological systems (SES) vulnerability. Inadequate drought adaptation measures further marginalise farmers and ultimately increase their vulnerability to drought risks and loss and damage (L&D). L&D presents itself in various ways, including non-economic L&D and cascading effects that are impacting upon future generations. With projected climate change and the likelihood of impacts worsening, there is an urgency to address L&D more coherently through crucial policy interventions.

Understanding Local Perspectives on Climate Change and Its Impacts on Small-Scale Fishing Communities in Honda Bay, Palawan, Philippines

Climate change's adverse impacts are already evident, particularly in coastal areas. However, local perception that is essential in formulating policies for mitigating its impacts remains limited. Thus, this study evaluated the level of perception of small fishing communities on climate change and its impacts on livelihood and the environment. The data were obtained using a face-to-face survey with the aid of a structured questionnaire. They were interpreted and analyzed using the Likert point scale, descriptive statistics, and chi-square. A total of 308 male fisherfolks participated in the survey. Majority belong to age 51-60 years old (38%) and 61 years old and above (32%). Most of them (65%) finished elementary and generally (94%) rely on fishing for main source of living. As for income, 47% earned an estimated monthly income of Php 2,501-5,000 and 28% got Php 5,001-7,500. Most of the respondents are full-time fishers (89%) for more than 11 years (87%), and fishing within the municipal water (92%). Majority (90%) have an idea about climate change as reflected by their very high score in Likert Perception (24.3±2.3%). The climate change impacts perceived by the respondents include: increasing sea surface temperature (87%); fish are sensitive to changing climate (87%); and fossil fuel consumption contributes to climate change (84%). They said they got the information from TV/ Radio (99%) and social media (10%). The age (p-value < 0.0032) and source of information (p-value < 0.0348) are among the variables with significant relationship to the perception of respondents on climate change impacts. In total, it appears that majority of fishers are aware of the impacts of climates. It is suggested that effective management actions, such as emergency preparedness schemes and livelihood diversification should be explored to address the specific needs of fishing communities that are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Furthermore, an ecosystem-based approach that focuses on socio-economic dynamics and climate-induced changes in assessments and management is essential for the sustainable use of fisheries resources amidst the changing climate.

Determinants of livelihood diversification and its contribution to food security of rural households in Gozamin Woreda, Ethiopia

Determinants of livelihood diversification and its contribution to food security of rural households in Gozamin Woreda, Ethiopia

Moving forward from escaping the poverty trap in China's greenest regions: Examining four decades of socioecological evolution to re-orient sustainable development policies

Afforestation is an important aspect of ecosystem restoration (ER) and poverty alleviation (PA) through direct and indirect social, economic, and environmental effects. However, the existing afforestation projects worldwide have mainly viewed economic benefits through the narrow lens of subsistence and livelihood, thereby underestimating both indirect PA and the associated negative effects on agricultural production when formulating long-term solutions to global poverty. This study aimed to systematically examine the ecological, agricultural, and economic effects of ecosystem restoration in southeastern China over four decades based on biophysical models and statistical records, and further proposed an upgraded strategy for sustainable PA through ER that addresses conservation objectives and resource needs. We found that ER promoted vegetation growth and enhanced carbon sequestration and soil retention. Meanwhile, industrial transformation improved the economic scale and livelihood diversity (i.e., disposable income), which alleviated poverty and improved social services and infrastructure conditions. Nevertheless, the secondary and tertiary industries gradually replaced the primary industry in terms of output, and increased animal husbandry and forestry development weakened crop planting. Planting structure adjustments further threatened the stability of the grain supply, particularly after 1999, which could potentially lead to a grain crisis. Therefore, we propose upgraded forest management and coordinated development policies to avoid a grain crisis, improve livelihood diversity, balance multidimensional benefits, and facilitate sustainable development. Study results serve as a valuable reference for policy formulation and ER measures for more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable PA.

Pastoralist livelihood diversification and social network transition: a conceptual framework

Pastoralist livelihood diversification and social network transition: a conceptual framework

Perceived effects of climate change on aquaculture production in Zambia: status, vulnerability factors, and adaptation strategies

Aquaculture plays a critical role in Zambia's food and nutrition security. However, aquaculture is highly vulnerable to the effects of a changing climate which can lead to economic losses, and food and nutrition insecurity. In this study, we investigated the perceived effects of climate change on aquaculture production in Zambia, vulnerability factors, and adaptation strategies. We used semi-structured and structured questionnaires to collect data from aquaculture producers in all provinces across the country. Results revealed high (over 80%) awareness of climate change, primarily attributed to literacy levels and access to media. Producers perceived occurrence of climate-related changes such as rising temperature, altered rainfall patterns, cyclones frequency, and disease outbreaks, impacting production costs. Generally, the results indicate a high to medium perception of rising temperature and increased frequency of flooding and droughts across the country. Although rising temperature did not appear to affect aquaculture production cost, the frequency of droughts, floods, cyclones, and disease outbreaks showed a significant association with production costs. Identified vulnerability factors include reliance on a limited range of fish species, absence of insurance coverage, and low adoption of adaptation practices. Vulnerability levels vary across regions, with provinces in agroecological zone I (Eastern, Lusaka, Southern, and Western) showing higher vulnerability. Despite this, many producers aren't implementing adaptation measures due to financial limitations, species diversity constraints, and insufficient knowledge of alternative economic pursuits. Main adaptation strategies involve livelihood diversification and adjustments in fish cultivation periods and infrastructure. To foster aquaculture sustainability amid climate change, critical interventions such as farm insurance, research diversification in aquaculture species, and enhancing producer resilience are necessary.

Adaptation Strategies of Coastal Communities to Sea Level Rise Due to Climate Change

This study examines adaptation strategies employed by coastal communities in Indonesia to address sea level rise due to climate change. Utilizing a literature review method, the research identifies various adaptation strategies, their success factors, and the challenges faced by coastal communities. Findings reveal adaptation strategies including physical infrastructure development, mangrove rehabilitation, early warning systems, community education and awareness raising, livelihood diversification, resettlement, drainage infrastructure improvement, and sustainable coastal resource management. Each strategy presents its own strengths and challenges, necessitating a holistic and participatory approach for effective implementation. Recommendations include enhancing stakeholder collaboration, developing flexible policies responsive to local conditions, and increasing investments in education and infrastructure. Regular evaluation of adaptation strategy success is also advised to ensure sustainability of adaptation efforts in the future.

She Shores

Abstract This study delves into the lives of women from the Koli fishing community in Mumbai, aiming to illuminate their unique life experiences and the daily struggles that often remain hidden beneath their prosperous facade. It endeavours to examine their agency and adaptive strategies employed to navigate these challenges. The research was conducted in Pachubandar, Vasai, located in the western suburbs of Mumbai, which stands as one of the prominent Koli settlements in the city. Employing a qualitative research approach coupled with an exploratory research design, the study engaged ten participants, comprising seven Koli women and three key informants from the community. Additionally, an observational analysis of four retail and wholesale fish markets in Mumbai was conducted to gain insight into the working conditions of Koli fisherwomen. This study adopts a gender-focused perspective to scrutinise the contextual vulnerabilities that shape the lives of Koli women. It underscores the paradox wherein, despite playing a pivotal role in sustaining both their families and the traditional fishing occupation, their contributions often go unnoticed. The Koli women face severe deprivation due to their limited access to property and decision-making authority. They find themselves entangled within traditional norms and patriarchal structures, which impede their access to essential assets and diverse livelihood resources. Although they significantly contribute to the fishery sector, their struggles, needs, and aspirations are frequently disregarded due to their lack of representation and involvement in decision-making bodies. The majority of these women work under precarious conditions, devoid of proper infrastructure, resources, and security. Furthermore, the evolving dynamics within the fishery sector, driven by rapid urbanisation and modernisation, have a profound impact on the lives and traditional livelihoods of Koli women. They now confront issues such as dwindling fish catches due to environmental degradation, heightened market competition, reduced livelihood spaces brought about by shifting urban and coastal landscapes, altered labour relations, and technological advancements. Consequently, they find themselves caught between the conflicting forces of tradition and modernity. The research also sheds light on the strategies devised by Koli women to resist and adapt to the uncertainties and challenges they encounter, ultimately safeguarding their livelihoods through self-organisation. The study emphasises the imperative to acknowledge their contributions as ‘visible work’ and advocates for the incorporation of gender considerations when formulating policies and development strategies within the fisheries sector.