Livelihood Diversification Research Articles

Gender differentiated impacts of climate change on agriculture in Nepal: A review

Gender disparities\' sensitivity to climate change impacts in agriculture is a major source of concern. This review investigates the gender-specific effects of climate change on the agricultural sector. The study is based on a meticulous review of over sixty-seven published reports, documents, articles, and presentations by the Government of Nepal (GoN) and numerous international organizations active in the domains of gender, climate change, and agriculture. We also examine the experiences of men and women regarding the impacts of climate change on agriculture in Nepal, encompassing their respective roles, duties, and vulnerabilities. This study actively contributes to the ongoing international discourse on gender and climate change. The literature review reveals that while climate change affects both men and women, it disproportionately increases the workload for women due to their limited access to reliable weather prediction information, crop and livelihood diversification alternatives, and decision-making authority. Incorporating gender considerations into initiatives for climate change adaptation and mitigation can result in enhanced and enduring solutions. This study concludes that climate change impacts have the potential to exacerbate existing gender inequalities and recommends the adoption of gender-responsive approaches when addressing climate change challenges.

Exploring Drivers to Adopt Eco System-Based Livelihood Diversification: Experiences from Women in Agri-based Economy in Sri Lanka

Exploring Drivers to Adopt Eco System-Based Livelihood Diversification: Experiences from Women in Agri-based Economy in Sri Lanka

Determinants of Household Choice of Livelihood Diversification Strategies in Selected Drought Prone Areas of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Region, Ethiopia

Determinants of Household Choice of Livelihood Diversification Strategies in Selected Drought Prone Areas of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Region, Ethiopia

Assessment of barriers to livelihood diversification among commercial motor drivers in Ekiti State, Nigeria

Assessment of barriers to livelihood diversification among commercial motor drivers in Ekiti State, Nigeria

An assessment of Wellbeing Priorities of Small-scale Migratory Fishing Communities in the West Coast, Sri Lanka

Identification of wellbeing priorities is a pre-requisite for successful development programs. Wellbeing assessment has become ever-challenging yet crucial in development studies, especially in achieving macroeconomic goals. This paper presents a descriptive assessment method to identify unmet wellbeing priorities, which may provide valuable and meaningful insights on development needs and frustrations. Assessment has been conducted assuming the perceiving wellbeing as a gap between an individual’s necessities (aspiration) and level of satisfaction. There, development frustrations and goal achievements have been explored with respect to the small-scale migratory fishers in the west coast, Sri Lanka. A sample of 142 fishers (25% of the migrant fishing population in the west coast) was drawn randomly from the lists of fisheries associations in Negombo and Chilaw, who are migrating to Mannar, in the North. The necessities and satisfactions were assessed based on a 3-point and 4-point Likert scale and the mean scores were calculated and ranked. Differences between the mean score rank of the wellbeing necessities and mean score rank of satisfaction were calculated. The negative difference indicates development frustrations, and the positives are goal achievements. Indian trawling issue, illegal fishing, financial uncertainty, cost of fishing, fish pricing mechanism, patience, conflicts, and physical health are the unmet wellbeing priorities with negative ranks. Migration has enabled easy access to sea, smooth consumption, diversified livelihood opportunities, good family relationships, and a few others with a positive difference – the goal achievements. Implementation of rules and regulations encouraging sustainable fishing techniques, regulations against poaching, adequate market linkages and effective pricing mechanism to control unhealthy price fluctuations, an interactive governance system including locals and migrant fishers, and frequent health clinics are recommended.

Measuring Community Resilience and Its Determinants: Relocated Vulnerable Community in Western China.

With the full implementation of poverty alleviation resettlement (PAR), the restoration and improvement of the comprehensive living standards of relocated households have received increasing attention from policy researchers. The measurement of resilience and its determinants provides new ideas for PAR at the community level. This article proposes a method for examining community resilience in the context of PAR through a survey of 459 relocated households in western China and uses regression analysis to identify the determinants of community resilience. The results showed that the four dimensions of community resilience, in descending order, included: environmental resilience, economic resilience, management resilience, and social resilience. Income level and livelihood diversification were positively correlated with the community resilience index. Relocation time, relocation type, and resettlement mode were all essential determinants of the community resilience of relocated households. Finally, some suggestions were put forward, such as the need to build an interpersonal relationship network, guide pure farmers and non-farmers to transform into diversified livelihood households, and formulate a unified community action plan and interest protection mechanism so as to provide a reference for decision-making among managers to make decisions.

Waiting for the wave, but missing the tide: Case studies of climate-related (im)mobility and health

Climate change amplifies health risks, including through the health impacts of climate-related displacement. Yet diverse mobility responses in a warming world can also provide a pathway for climate change adaptation. This article examines the connections between climatic and environmental change, human mobility and health. It presents case studies across three countries: Fiji, Bangladesh, and Burkina Faso. All case studies used qualitative methods, including semi-structured interviews, storytelling, and group discussions. The Fiji case study focuses on relocation of a coastal village exposed to erosion, flooding and saltwater intrusion; it highlights self-reported health risks and opportunities following relocation. The Bangladesh case study includes seven sites that variously experience flooding, cyclones and riverbank erosion; while residents use migration and (im)mobility as a coping strategy, there are associated health risks, particularly for those who feel trapped in new sites of residence. The case study from a village in Burkina Faso examines seasonal labour migration to the Ivory Coast and Mali during times of drought and reduced agricultural productivity, and discusses health risks for men who migrate and for women who remain in sending communities. These case studies illustrate that there is no consistent figure that represents a 'climate migrant', ‘climate refugee’, or ‘trapped’ person. Accordingly, we argue that where planetary health looks to highlight ‘waves’ of climate displacement, it may miss the ‘tide’ of slower onset climatic changes and smaller-scale and diverse forms of (im)mobility. However, even where climate-related mobility is broadly adaptive - e.g. providing opportunities for livelihood diversification, or migration away from environmental risks - there can be health risks and opportunities that are shaped by socio-political contexts, access to healthcare, altered food sources, and living and working conditions. Responsive solutions are required to protect and promote the health of mobile and immobile populations in a warming world.

Cultural Knowledge of On-farm Tree Plantation in Rural Communities of Gurez Himalaya

People’s perceptions on cultural knowledge of on-farm tree plantation have become fundamental elements of sustainable forest resource management. The study examined the people’s knowledge on cultural practices of on-farm tree plantation and their socioeconomic determinants in rural communities of Gurez Himalaya. Multistage random sampling technique was used to select 337 households from 18 sample villages for field survey. Data were collected through personal interviews administering structured interview schedule and non-participant observations. Data were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics. Results indicated that majority of the people were belonged to low socioeconomic status class as reflected by their household characteristics. Among the ten selected major cultural practices about on-farm tree plantation the ‘spot weeding’ (WMS, 2.87; priority percentage, 12.83%) was ranked 1st while ‘thinning’ (WMS= 1.31; priority percentage, 5.85%) was ranked 10th. Majority of the respondents (54.88%) had medium knowledge on cultural practices for on-farm tree plantation followed by high (23.78%) and low (21.34%) classes. Adoption of tree plantation, problem faced in tree cultivation, experience in tree cultivation, training exposure on tree cultivation and level of education had significant contribution on people’s knowledge on cultural practices about on-farm tree plantation. The findings suggested that the trainings on cultural practices about on-farm tree plantation is the crucial intervention for livelihood diversification, socioeconomic development and forest conservation; hence, need-based trainings must be planned and imparted to the individuals for improving the tree resource production, harvesting and marketing.

Factors Influencing Household Livelihood Diversification: The Case of Kebri Dahar District, Korahey Zone of Somali Region, Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, livelihood diversification has become a major source of income for rural communities. This study was carried out in rural kebeles in the Kebri Dahar district, and it focuses on livelihood diversification strategies and the factors that affect livelihood diversification. The collected types of data were from primary and secondary sources based on a qualitative and quantitative basis. Multistage sampling techniques were employed in selecting the representative households of 119 respondents. Furthermore, multinomial logistic regressions were used to analyze and achieve the objective. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyze the collected data. The results revealed that 33.6%, 3.30%, 10.1%, and 52.9% of the respondents participated in the on-farm, off-farm, nonfarm, and combinations of livelihood activities, respectively. The descriptive statistics showed that 52.9% of the respondents diversified their livelihoods and 47.1% did not. The multinomial logistic regression shows that being male-headed as well as the increased age of HH head were found to be significant at a 1% significance level in three livelihood activities which positively and negatively influenced livelihood diversification. Livelihood diversification has a positive impact on security in the study area. Thus, it should be promoted not only by the government and nongovernmental organizations but also by individuals who are interested in livelihood diversification since it implies food security.

The diversity of organic farmer motivations and livelihoods in the Global South – A case study in Kerala, India

Organic agriculture is often promoted as a means to achieve sustainable agriculture and livelihoods. Yet, the evidence is mixed on the outcomes of organic adoption. We conducted a case study in the South Indian state of Kerala to understand farmer motivations to adopt organic agriculture, their livelihood characteristics, and outcomes of adoption. To do so, we designed a conceptual framework bringing together key constructs from the theory of planned behaviour and the sustainable livelihoods framework. Focusing on the two districts of Thrissur and Wayanad, our work is informed by semi-structured interviews and focus groups with organic and conventional farmers and key informants. Based on this study, we developed a typology of organic farmers that we found to be analytically powerful: three core groups were identified -- wealthy “hobby farmers”; poorer “non-certified farmers”; and middle class “export farmers”. Our study revealed that these organic farmer types differ not only in their livelihood characteristics, but also in their motivations for adopting organic agriculture, as well as in their satisfaction with organic agriculture as a livelihood strategy. We found that the perceived success of organic agriculture in Kerala depends both on who adopts it and why. These differences have important policy implications. In Kerala, we suggest that policy support for organic agriculture should primarily target non-certified farmers who are poorer and ideologically committed to it, but should also address the concerns of export farmers who are more likely to persist with organic farming under favourable economic conditions. More broadly, our study shows that for states and non-profits to better support organic agriculture, nuanced understandings of the farmers involved are required.

Assessment of Training Needs on Entrepreneurship Development for NTFR Stakeholders in Gurez Valley of Kashmir

Entrepreneurship on non-timber forest resources (NTFR) is an important source of sustainable livelihoods and income diversification in the Gurez valley of Kashmir. In order to increase the efficiency of NTFR stakeholders, training is indispensable. This study attempts to assess the training needs, suitable training programme and socioeconomic profile of the NTFR stakeholders. Multistage random sampling procedure was used to select 337 households from 18 sample villages for field survey. Data were collected through personal interviews administering structured interview schedule and analysed using simple descriptive statistics. Results indicated that majority of the NTFR stakeholders were belonged to low socioeconomic status class as reflected by their household characteristics. Among the ten selected major thematic areas the ‘commercialization of NTFR’ (WMS, 3.00; priority percentage, 12.87%) was ranked 1st while ‘conservation of NTFR through JFM’ (WMS= 1.68; priority percentage, 7.21%) was ranked 10th. The short duration trainings (1-7 days) (WMS, 3.00) was ranked 1st among the delivery methods followed by the medium duration trainings (8-14 days) (WMS, 2.84; rank 2nd) and the long duration trainings (3-4 weeks) (WMS, 2.79; rank 3rd). The findings suggested that the trainings on NTFR entrepreneurship of stakeholders is the crucial intervention for livelihood diversification, socioeconomic development and forest conservation; hence, need-based trainings must be planned and imparted to the individuals for improving the entrepreneurial productivity, performance and efficiency. To achieve the desired change in the NTFR entrepreneurship, the training needs identified in this study must be given due consideration during designing the training curriculum.

Rural creativity for community revitalization in Bishan Village, China: The nexus of creative practices, cultural revival, and social resilience

This paper reports a case study of the community revitalization initiative in Bishan Village, Anhui Province, China, which is art-oriented and overseen by the renowned art curator Ou Ning and his colleagues. The Bishan Project, launched in 2011, is analysed as an attempt to revive the countryside through cultural and creative innovations. This responds to the recent emphasis in rural studies on arts and creativities as effective interventions into rural revival and development. To comprehend the vibrant, resilient, and innovative ruralities that are proliferating around the world, the post-productivism thesis casts important light on the revival and revalorization of rural places by way of the diversification of rural livelihoods and economies. However, the focus on cultural consumption by urban consumers cannot account for the varied constellations of economic, social, and cultural innovations that contribute to the swift reinvention of rurality. Engaging instead with the literature on rural creativity, which examines the crucial role of creative practices in restoring rural subjectivities and remedying the social fabrics in rural regions, this study suggests that creative initiatives intervene in and catalyst the restoration of local cultures and social relations, and contribute to an evolutionary resilience that is nonetheless contested and indeterminate, revolving around tensions between the cultural authority of artists and villagers’ uneven participation; and between local villagers’ aspiration for economic development and artists’ reluctance to capitalize on rural creativities.

Determinants of Farmers’ Vulnerability to Poverty Due to Crop Loss: The Case of Assam, India

This article tries to assess the determinants of farmers’ vulnerability to poverty due to crop loss and to find out how they cope with it. To carry out the aforesaid study, we have conducted a field survey in Assam, India. Using ordered probit regression, we find that vulnerability is determined by a host of factors such as age, family size, social group, monthly expenditure, loss due to crop damage, coping measures, crop insurance, use of chemical fertilizers and irrigation. However, access to institutional support does not reduce vulnerability significantly. Coping measures are mostly destructive, and farmers with these coping strategies are more vulnerable to poverty. Social safety nets such as public distribution and ad hoc employment facilities are available, but the safety nets needed for farming and basic measures required for increasing productivity have been lacking. The study recommends affordable irrigation, training and awareness programmes and the provision of the resource base for successful coping. It is also important to provide opportunities for livelihood diversification to maintain the inflow of cash during crop loss. Finally, farmers who are on the margins of subsistence require institutions for social security to reduce vulnerability and bring about transformation. JEL Classification: C83

Exploring the benefits and dis-benefits of climate migration as an adaptive strategy along the rural-peri-urban continuum in Namibia

The scale of climate migration across the Global South is expected to increase during this century. By 2050, millions of Africans are likely to consider, or be pushed into, migration because of climate hazards contributing to agricultural disruption, water and food scarcity, desertification, flooding, drought, coastal erosion, and heat waves. However, the migration-climate nexus is complex, as is the question of whether migration can be considered a climate change adaptation strategy across both the rural and urban space. Combining data from household surveys, key informant interviews, and secondary sources related to regional disaster, demographic, resource, and economic trends between 1990 and 2020 from north central and central dryland Namibia, we investigate (i) human migration flows and the influence of climate hazards on these flows and (ii) the benefits and dis-benefits of migration in supporting climate change adaptation, from the perspective of migrants (personal factors and intervening obstacles), areas of origin, and areas of destination. Our analysis suggests an increase in climate-related push factors that could be driving rural out-migration from the north central region to peri-urban settlements in the central region of the country. While push factors play a role in rural-urban migration, there are also several pull factors (many of which have been long-term drivers of urban migration) such as perceived higher wages, diversity of livelihoods, water, health and energy provisioning, remittances, better education opportunities, and the exchange of non-marketed products. Migration to peri-urban settlements can reduce some risks (e.g. loss of crops and income due to climate extremes) but amplify others (e.g. heat stress and insecure land tenure). Adaptation at both ends of the rural–urban continuum is supported by deeply embedded linkages in a model of circular rural–urban-rural migration and interdependencies. Results empirically inform current and future policy debates around climate mobilities in Namibia, with wider implications across Africa.Graphical abstract

Exploring adaptive capacity: Observations from the vulnerable human-coastal environmental system of the Bay of Bengal in India

This article presents the factors that help build the adaptive capacity of individuals to reduce vulnerability from natural threats. The findings are based on primary data on individuals engaged in various livelihood practices in the Digha-Sankarpur- Mandarmoni region along the eastern coastline of the Bay of Bengal in India. Coastal communities have their individual perceptions about their vulnerability to natural threats and associated risks to various assets. Based on perception survey responses, “adaptive capacity” is measured and the determining factors are analyzed with an aim to provide policy guidelines for strengthening the adaptive capacity of people dependent on coastal ecosystem-based livelihoods. Findings show that income security for individuals in coastal systems can be achieved through a livelihood diversification strategy. The scope for individuals to build personal savings, have access to financial institutions, and engage in collaborative actions with immediate neighbors in the community help to prevent multiple losses at the individual level aids in their adaptive capacity. Government actions to provide institutional and governance support and incentives to promote livelihood diversification and personal savings would enhance adaptive capacity through institutional actions. Public investment in public goods and services, including protection and monitoring of natural coastal ecosystems, infrastructure development, technological intervention, providing access to information, and community empowerment, have important roles to play in enhancing adaptive capacity.

The Dominant Livelihood Types of Farm Households and Their Determinants in Key Ecological Function Areas

The dominant livelihood types of farm households have become increasingly differentiated in recent years, which has attracted the attention of researchers. Identifying the characteristics and driving factors of household livelihood differentiation is of great significance for revealing man-land relationship and policy making. Based on the interview data of farm households in typical villages in key ecological function areas of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region in China, we analyzed the pattern of the dominant diversified livelihood types and the livelihood characteristics among different farm households. Then we assessed the driving forces of livelihood diversification by optimal scaling regression. The results indicated that: (1) In the study area, the dominant livelihood types show two trends of agriculturally dominant livelihood (accounting for 53.07%) and non-agriculturally dominant livelihood (accounting for 46.93%). Moreover, farm households in the agro-pastoral areas are mainly agriculturally dominated (accounting for 75.68%), while farm households in the mountainous areas are mainly non-agriculturally dominated (accounting for 66.93%). (2) The labor allocation and income source of different types of farm households are consistent with their dominant livelihood types. The farm households with agriculturally dominant livelihoods have more natural resources than those with non-agriculturally dominant livelihoods. In terms of housing conditions, farm households with agriculturally dominant livelihoods are inferior to those with non-agriculturally dominant livelihoods. (3) The farm labor, dependency ratio, agricultural income, supplemental income and locational conditions have negative impacts on the non-agricultural trend of farm household livelihood decisions, while off-farm labor, non-farm income, education level and the per capita amount of compensation have significant positive impacts on it.

Rural Livelihoods Diversification in Ethiopia: Evidence of Households around Lake Tana

Rural Livelihoods Diversification in Ethiopia: Evidence of Households around Lake Tana

Herder households' livelihood strategies as a response to payments for grassland ecosystem services in China

AbstractHerder households' response is critical in determining the effectiveness of payments for grassland ecosystem services (PGES). This study aimed to comprehensively analyze the influencing factors and processes of herder households' response to PGES using the sustainable livelihood approach. Here, we were the first to classify the ways herder households respond to PGES from the perspective of livelihood strategies, and proposed a sustainable livelihood indicator framework applicable to herder household research. According to the framework, we combined path analysis and statistical analysis to carry out empirical analysis in a typical area. The results show that the response strategies could be divided into three types, which rated by popularity from low to high, were reduction in herd counts (19.1%), livelihood diversification (27.7%) and industrial upgrading (53.1% max). Their formation was influenced by various factors, such as the PGES, vulnerability context, livelihood assets, and livelihood outcomes. In general, strict supervision (influence coefficient 0.46) helped reduce livestock headcounts, especially in small and medium households, which used to be the main bodies of overloading. Households with rising living standards tended to explore off‐farm livelihoods, but there were also some households that did so because of disagreement with PGES. Households with higher vulnerability and higher livelihood assets tended to cope with the shortage of grassland through industrial upgrading, thereby achieving a balanced utilization of grassland resources. This study not only makes an important supplement to PGES and sustainable livelihood theory but also provides an important reference for grassland ecological protection practices around the world.

Disparities in economic achievement across the rural–urban divide in Pakistan: Implications for development planning

Growth, underpinned by augmented production, has been the dominant mode of development, where the focus is to influence the ability to increase the output and income of producers. In this process, differences in economic achievement are influenced collectively by geography, culture and institutions that determine effective capabilities. Yet, disparities associated with place are still widespread. In this paper, we draw some insights on the nature of economic deprivation amongst Pakistan households using Household Integrated Economic Survey (PSLM/HIES) data and treating the residential location as a key parameter of interest. In relating to the well-known discussion on rural–urban divide, we identify some commonalities in location-specific attributes in the achievement of economic-wellbeing. The analyses confirm the existing knowledge that poverty and well-being have strong place attachments, favouring urban areas as locations of greater relative well-being due to low levels of deprivation, in particular health, education and food security. In discussing how location may predispose inhabitants to deprivations or vulnerabilities, we identify some opportunities to realign development focus towards meeting local needs and raising aspirations for self-empowerment by better focusing on the nature of economic linkages that supports livelihood diversity.

Systemizing a rural livelihood diversification framework for sustainable community-based agritourism: A participatory approach to ensure resilience

IntroductionSituated approaches of rural livelihood diversification, such as community-based agritourism, can localize sustainable food systems at the regional level. This research advances an integrated framework of indicators to assess the interdisciplinary benefits of rural livelihood diversification practices for sustainable local food systems and community resilience.MethodsWe built a framework on four dimensions deducted from secondary data: (1) environmental, (2) sociocultural, (3) economic, and (4) health. These were validated with an inductive analysis of primary data, which we collected from a panel of experts with a content validity index and tested in three rural case studies with shadow observation and qualitative interviews. We conducted both in-depth interviews with community leaders (n = 10) and semi-structured interviews with multi-sectoral stakeholders (n = 40).ResultsFindings (1) identify a comprehensive list of indicators to assess environmental, sociocultural, economic, and health dimensions of rural livelihood diversification practices and (2) advance a participatory approach to prioritize indicators according to their regional relevance (co-developed with stakeholders involved in Bangkok's local food systems). Food tourism connects the four dimensions by (1) preserving local agrobiodiversity (2) preserving rural communities' traditions (3) creating new capacity building opportunities for community-driven socio-economic development and (4) recognizing the health benefits of indigenous foods.DiscussionThis study contributes to a value-added conceptualization of community-based agritourism as a rural livelihood diversification practice. Such research effort highlights the importance of co-producing and ground-truthing indicators for rural livelihood diversification practices localizing sustainable development goals.