Live Reef Research Articles

Live reef fish displaying physiological evidence of cyanide poisoning are still traded in the EU marine aquarium industry

The illegal use of cyanide poisoning to supply live reef fish to several markets is one of the main threats to coral reefs conservation in the Indo-Pacific. The present study performed the first survey ever monitoring the marine aquarium trade in the EU for the presence of physiological evidence consistent with cyanide poisoning in live reef fish. This survey was also the first one worldwide employing a non-invasive sampling approach. Nearly 15% of the fish screened displayed physiological evidence of being illegally collected using cyanide poisoning (by testing positive for the presence of the thiocyanate anion (SCN−) in their urine). The efforts promoted so far to completely eradicate cyanide caught fish from the marine aquarium trade have not been effective, as our results suggest that their prevalence in the trade is in line with data reported nearly two decades ago. A new paradigm is urgently needed to effectively ban cyanide caught fish from the marine aquarium trade.

Selectivity matters: Rules of thumb for management of plate‐sized, sex‐changing fish in the live reef food fish trade

AbstractEffective management of fisheries depends on the selectivity of different fishing methods, control of fishing effort and the life history and mating system of the target species. For sex‐changing species, it is unclear how the truncation of age‐structure or selection of specific size or age classes (by fishing for specific markets) affects population dynamics. We specifically address the consequences of plate‐sized selectivity, whereby submature, “plate‐sized” fish are preferred in the live reef food fish trade. We use an age‐structured model to investigate the decline and recovery of populations fished with three different selectivity scenarios (asymptotic, dome‐shaped and plate‐sized) applied to two sexual systems (female‐first hermaphroditism and gonochorism). We parameterized our model with life‐history data from Brown‐marbled grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus) and Napoleon fish (Cheilinus undulatus). “Plate‐sized” selectivity had the greatest negative effect on population trajectories, assuming accumulated fishing effort across ages was equal, while the relative effect of fishing on biomass was greatest with low natural mortality. Fishing such sex‐changing species before maturation decreased egg production (and the spawning potential ratio) in two ways: average individual size decreased and, assuming plasticity, females became males at a smaller size. Somatic growth rate affected biomass if selectivity was based on size at age because in slow growers, a smaller proportion of total biomass was vulnerable to fishing. We recommend fisheries avoid taking individuals near their maturation age, regardless of mating system, unless catch is tightly controlled. We also discuss the implications of fishing post‐settlement individuals on population dynamics and offer practical management recommendations.

Epinephelus fuscoguttatus mariculture in Indonesia: Implications from fish parasite infections

Indonesia plays a major role in grouper supply for the Hong Kong based Live Reef Food Fish Trade. Hong Kong is the biggest consumer of Live Reef Food Fish in the world and around 50% of the grouper originate from Indonesia. In order to match Hong Kong market demands, the Indonesian Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries started to implement plans to intensify mariculture farming, to boost grouper production. One inevitable consequence of this intensification is the increase of fish diseases and parasite infections. Samples of Epinephelus fuscoguttatus were obtained from four mariculture facilities in Lampung Bay (South Sumatra) and one in Pulau Seribu (North off western Java), Indonesia, to investigate and compare the parasite composition. In total 35 parasite species were detected. Different ecological parameters e.g. ecto/endoparasite ratio and Shannon–Wiener diversity Index were utilized to analyze the parasite composition at the different mariculture sites. We also recorded the cultivation methods for each facility including e.g. density of fish in the cages and other cultivation strategies. Our results demonstrate that the feeding strategy and e.g. the stocking density of fish in the cages significantly affect the composition of the grouper’s parasite fauna. As trash fish, which enables parasite transmission, is still one of the main feed sources, one of the major future tasks is the search for alternative feed sources and feeding strategies to prevent parasite spread and pathogenic outbreaks. Education of the farm management and unified standards for the often small-size producers are required in order to safeguard grouper mariculture development in the future.

Producing for Chinese luxury seafood value chains: Different outcomes for producers in the Philippines and North America

This paper examines the implications of changing Chinese seafood value chains for producers in source countries. The paper shows how institutions mediate the relationship between luxury seafood consumption in China and the ability of producers to environmentally and socio-economically upgrade. Examples come from the live reef fish for food trade in the Philippines and different seafood products from North America. The paper traces the implications of differences in institutional context across developing and developed countries. Fisheries value chains linking China and Southeast Asia exemplify environmental and socio-economic downgrading, as a consequence of an institutional context of weak regulation and local financing capacities in the Philippines. In contrast, the massively different institutional context of North American seafood production means that growth in Chinese consumption presents opportunities to upgrade.

Population structure and dispersal of the coral‐excavating sponge Cliona delitrix

Some excavating sponges of the genus Cliona compete with live reef corals, often killing and bioeroding entire colonies. Important aspects affecting distribution of these species, such as dispersal capability and population structure, remain largely unknown. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine levels of genetic connectivity and dispersal of Cliona delitrix across the Greater Caribbean (Caribbean Sea, Bahamas and Florida), to understand current patterns and possible future trends in their distribution and effects on coral reefs. Using ten species-specific microsatellite markers, we found high levels of genetic differentiation between six genetically distinct populations: one in the Atlantic (Florida-Bahamas), one specific to Florida and four in the South Caribbean Sea. In Florida, two independent breeding populations are likely separated by depth. Gene flow and ecological dispersal occur among other populations in the Florida reef tract, and between some Florida locations and the Bahamas. Similarly, gene flow occurs between populations in the South Caribbean Sea, but appears restricted between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic (Florida-Bahamas). Dispersal of C.delitrix was farther than expected for a marine sponge and favoured in areas where currents are strong enough to transport sponge eggs or larvae over longer distances. Our results support the influence of ocean current patterns on genetic connectivity, and constitute a baseline to monitor future C. delitrix trends under climate change.

Fisheries Trade and Social Development in the Philippine-Malaysia Maritime Border Zone

Weakly regulated natural-resource trading activities in the remote borderlands of developing countries are commonly viewed both as a means of improving economic development and as a way of smuggling valuable natural resources. Based on data from the Philippine-Malaysia maritime border that focus on the trade in high-value live reef fish, this article points to the need to situate such cross-border activities more closely within the context of local perspectives and priorities. A locally-grounded perspective is necessary in order to understand the context of social-development challenges that mediate both macroeconomic and environmental policy outcomes.

Caught in the Act: How the U.S. Lacey Act Can Hamper the Fight Against Cyanide Fishing in Tropical Coral Reefs

AbstractCyanide fishing is one of the most destructive techniques employed to collect live reef fish. While national laws of most source countries ban this practice, cyanide is still widely employed to capture live reef fish for human consumption and marine aquariums. The United States is one of the largest importers of live reef fish, and the implementation of new approaches to screen for fish caught with cyanide is urgently needed. A fast and reliable noninvasive and nondestructive approach to screen live reef fish for cyanide poisoning was recently developed, yet deployment of this test may be obstructed by U.S. law. The Lacey Act prohibits the import, export, transport, and acquisition in interstate or international commerce of fish taken in violation of any foreign law. Therefore, if a fish tests positive for cyanide poisoning, the testers could expose themselves to liability for potential Lacey Act violations, as they are “knowingly” engaging in an illegal act. To eliminate this disincentive, the U.S. government should help conservationists develop protocols on how to test for cyanide poisoning without violating the Lacey Act.

Seafood Banquets in Beijing: Consumer Perspectives and Implications for Environmental Sustainability

Understanding the social drivers of increased seafood consumption in China, such as consumer perspectives in banquets, will be crucial if practical strategies to introduce sustainability into this market are to be successfully implemented. Based on 34 semi-structured interviews with key informants including seafood restaurant operators, seafood consumers and seafood traders, this study investigated seafood consumer attitudes and behaviours in Beijing seafood restaurants. The results and discussion is divided into sections that address the popularity and reasons behind the popularity of: 1) seafood banquets in general; 2) fish at banquets; 3) other forms of seafood at banquets; and 4) preferred characteristics and qualities of seafood at banquets. The consumption of certain types of seafood such as live reef fish and sea cucumber is becoming increasingly popular, while the consumption of shark fin is decreasing in popularity. Awareness and concern about sustainability and traceability issues were relatively low, and more significant themes for understanding consumer preferences about seafood include social status and prestige, food safety and quality, and health and nutrition. The paper concludes by demonstrating the implications for market-based interventions and government regulation.

A Complicated Reef: The Relationship Between a Representation and the Represented Phenomenon

In this study, I describe the relationship between the Florida Aquarium's representation of a coral reef and the live reef that served as the model for the representation. I specifically illustrate how naming practices complicate the aquarium's stated purpose of environmental education. I conclude by suggesting ways the aquarium and other pro-environmental facilities can better manage environmental representation.

Social Relations and Commodity Chains: The Live Reef Fish for Food Trade

This paper considers the relationship between anthropology and the interdisciplinary field of commodity studies through an examination of an important commodity chain in the Asia-Pacific, the live reef fish for food trade. Using an ethnographic perspective, I focus on how particular social relationships within this commodity chain have significant implications for two key concerns of commodity studies—the distribution of benefits through commodity chains and how commodity chains are regulated. The social relationships between fishers and traders provide a powerful avenue for relative economic prosperity for fishers, yet the forms of social relationships that operate between fishers, traders and regulators mean that regulation of the trade is not being implemented. This analysis provides an example of how an ethnographic lens can provide a useful perspective that can contribute to an interdisciplinary dialogue on commodity chains.

Boundary layer flow dynamics at a cold-water coral reef

The Tisler cold-water coral reef is a 2km long reef in the north-eastern Skagerrak, Norway. The reef is comprised principally of Lophelia pertusa at depths between 70 and 160m. Velocity shear and boundary layer shear stresses have been measured at Tisler Reef to quantify the effect of the reef structure on the benthic boundary layer (BBL) dynamics.Two different approaches to estimating the magnitude of the near seabed stress were employed: using a logarithmic (constant stress) boundary layer approach and direct Reynolds stress measurements. Resultant estimates of near seabed stresses using both methods were comparable.Using the logarithmic layer approach to estimate seabed stresses both inside and out of the reef structure demonstrated that, for any particular impinging flow strength, higher shear stresses were observed within the live coral region than in the dead coral rubble region with no live coral stands. Bottom shear stresses of up to 3.5Nm−2 were measured within the reef complex and 1.2Nm−2 in the rubble region outside the live reef. This difference is due to large roughness length scales inside the rough living coral area relative to the smaller scales in the coral rubble.Low frequency acoustic backscatter data, used as a proxy for relative suspended particulate matter concentrations, suggested that both local re-suspension and advection of suspended material most likely occur at, and through, the reef system. The high stresses measured inside the living reef may favour corals by increasing the degree of re-suspension for a given current speed and providing more particulates to the filter feeding polyps.

Examining local conservation and development: Live reef food fishing in Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia

Live reef food fish (LRFF) fishing is one of the most important livelihoods for the people of the coastal and small island communities within the Spermonde A...

Luxury seafood consumption in China and the intensification of coastal livelihoods in Southeast Asia: The live reef fish for food trade in Balabac, Philippines

AbstractAn important contemporary driver of livelihood change in coastal Southeast Asia is the growing demand for luxury seafood in China. Based on fieldwork in the municipality of Balabac in Palawan province, western Philippines, this paper takes stock of this trend, and investigates the implications of the relationship between Chinese patterns of luxury seafood consumption and the intensification of coastal livelihoods in Southeast Asia. The paper focuses mostly on the trade in live reef fish, with reference also to sea cucumber and shark fin. In the light of recent discussions of social and environmental change in Southeast Asia, the paper addresses how the intensification of coastal livelihoods has manifested in important trends, including an increasing reliance on high‐value commodity fisheries such as the trade in luxury seafood. Important consequences of this intensification of coastal livelihoods include environmental degradation, and social change due to the development of broader trading networks. The paper argues that the live reef fish for food trade is an important contemporary livelihood that highlights the ways in which Chinese consumption is having diverse social and environmental consequences for source countries in Southeast Asia.

Excreted Thiocyanate Detects Live Reef Fishes Illegally Collected Using Cyanide—A Non-Invasive and Non-Destructive Testing Approach

Cyanide fishing is a method employed to capture marine fish alive on coral reefs. They are shipped to markets for human consumption in Southeast Asia, as well as to supply the marine aquarium trade worldwide. Although several techniques can be used to detect cyanide in reef fish, there is still no testing method that can be used to survey the whole supply chain. Most methods for cyanide detection are time-consuming and require the sacrifice of the sampled fish. Thiocyanate anion (SCN−) is a metabolite produced by the main metabolic pathway for cyanide anion (CN−) detoxification. Our study employed an optical fiber (OF) methodology (analytical time <6 min) to detect SCN− in a non-invasive and non-destructive manner. Our OF methodology is able to detect trace levels (>3.16 µg L−1) of SCN− in seawater. Given that marine fish exposed to cyanide excrete SCN− in the urine, elevated levels of SCN− present in the seawater holding live reef fish indicate that the surveyed specimens were likely exposed to cyanide. In our study, captive-bred clownfish (Amphiprion clarkii) pulse exposed for 60 s to either 12.5 or 25 mg L−1 of CN− excreted up to 6.96±0.03 and 9.84±0.03 µg L−1 of SCN−, respectively, during the 28 days following exposure. No detectable levels of SCN− were recorded in the water holding control organisms not exposed to CN−, or in synthetic seawater lacking fish. While further research is necessary, our methodology can allow a rapid detection of SCN− in the holding water and can be used as a screening tool to indicate if live reef fish were collected with cyanide.

IUU fishing in Indonesia’s live reef fisheries

The live reef fish trade involves the exploitation of coral reef fishes to supply luxury seafood restaurants in Hong Kong and mainland China; and high demand and expensive prices resulted in excessive fishing. Almost all of Indonesia’s coral reef areas are heavily exploited, and their sustainability is threatened by overfishing, IUU fishing and the effects of destructive fishing on the target species, non-target species and on their environment. This article outlines the results of a study conducted over 2009–10 in a number of locations in Indonesia analysing the live reef fish trade, including fishing equipment, supply chain and other socio-economic aspects. Recommendations are proposed to assist the Indonesian government in developing fisheries management plans for coral reef fish.

Habitat-associated intraspecific variation in behavior and stress responses in a demersal coral reef fish

Habitat heterogeneity has been linked to species diversity and abundance, but can also generate intraspecific behavioral variation that has functional consequences for how animals respond to environmental stressors. Previously, we found that bicolor damselfish Stegastes partitus inhabiting the fringing coral reefs of Curacao exhibited intraspecific variation in agonistic behaviors in spatial patterns associated with the reef’s transition from live coral colonies to rubble. Here we demonstrate for the first time that these fish also vary in physiological stress reactivity with habitat type. Bicolor damselfish collected from live coral and rubble habitats were sampled either <2.5 min (baseline) or 20 min (stressed) after capture to assess stressor-induced responses of cortisol and mRNA abundance for stress-associated endocrine genes (corticotropin-releasing hormone [CRH], urotensin 1 [U-I], CRH-binding protein [CRH-BP], and CRH receptors 1 and 2) in the brain. Acute capture stress increased plasma levels of cortisol in male and female damselfish from both habitat types, but triggered gene transcript responses contingent on the fish’s habitat and sex. In males from both habitats, capture stress increased relative transcript abundance for CRH, U-I and CRH-BP. Females, however, exhibited stress-responsive changes in transcript abundance that were habitat-dependent, with capture stress increasing CRH, U-I and CRH-BP mRNA levels in females from live reef, but decreasing levels of these same transcripts in females from rubble. These results provide evidence that intraspecific variation in behavior in bicolor damselfish is linked to variation in physiological stress reactivity in spatial patterns reflective of the local ecological characteristics of the coral reef.

Tackling illegal, unregulated, and unreported trade towards Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) recovery in Sabah, Malaysia

The live reef food fish trade (LRFFT) has caused severe depletion of the Humphead wrasse ( Cheilinus undulatus ) populations globally, a species considered endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. In 2010, signatories to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora recognized that illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) activities in the LRFFT were undermining the efforts to protect this species. Management recommendations have yet to be effectively implemented at national and local levels where the fish is harvested. This paper analyzes the threats to, and socio-economic impacts of, Humphead wrasse recovery in Sabah, Malaysia, and offers both short- and longer-term recommendations for the local recovery of the species. Key issues addressed centre around understanding the threats to recovery, specifically the role of IUU and the context-specific considerations, including the socio-economic aspects of the IUU trade in Sabah. The analysis confirms that deliberate management planning and action at multiple levels are required to prevent local-scale extinction. Lessons for other species and countries involved in the LRFFT suggest that to be effective, broad management frameworks must be tailored to local situations and must focus on gaining support and participation of fish harvesters if the recovery and long-term sustainability of both the Humphead wrasse and the LRFFT are to be achieved. ► Deliberate management planning and action at multiple levels are required to prevent local-scale extinction. ► Local-scale extinction of threatened fish species is linked to livelihoods, food security, and ecological resilience. ► Long-term sustainability of Humphead wrasse and the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT) requires management frameworks tailored to local situations, and focus on gaining support and participation of fish harvesters. ► Capacity, poverty, and legitimacy of law are critical considerations for recovery. ► Illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) activities, habitat destruction, domestic consumption, and knowledge gaps threaten recovery and must be addressed.

Historical, cultural and social perspectives on luxury seafood consumption in China

SUMMARYSince China is a leading market for a number of types of seafood, and much of this seafood is imported from other countries, Chinese consumption of seafood is an issue of vital importance to many of the world's fisheries. Focusing on luxury seafood, in particular bêche-de-mer, shark fin and live reef food fish, this paper firstly examines the links between Chinese consumption and species population trends in source countries. After a discussion of current efforts at conservation and management of these fisheries, the paper shows how the consumption of luxury seafood in contemporary China is intertwined with broader historical trends, including the expansion of Southern Chinese cuisine; cultural beliefs and traditions, in particular surrounding elements of traditional Chinese medicine; and most importantly, notions of social status and conspicuous consumption linked to the development of the Chinese economy and social stratification. The paper points to the role of the historical, cultural and social processes that underlie Chinese luxury seafood consumption, and to the need for greater levels of action among various actors to address this consumption if sustainability is to be achieved.

Sclerite calcification and reef-building in the fleshy octocoral genus Sinularia (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea)

Alcyonacean octocorals in tropical reefs are usually not considered as reef builders. Some Sinularia species, however, are capable of consolidating sclerites at the colony base to form spiculite. Nanwan Bay, southern Taiwan, features both fossilized and recently formed boulders composed of spiculite, thus demonstrating the role of Sinularia in contributing to the reef structure. Section radiography of an 18.5 kg spiculite boulder demonstrated a regular density banding of 3–6-mm intervals. Core survey indicated spiculite coverage of 25–30% on the live reef and of 30–40% on the uplifted boulders. Cores taken from living Sinularia revealed a distinct transition from discrete sclerites to compact spiculite and amorphous calcium carbonate cementing the sclerites. In the widespread S. gibberosa, sclerite formation appeared to start intracellularly, followed by a prolonged extracellular calcification process. At the calcification site, multiple sclerocytes formed expanded pseudopod-like membranes that interconnected, forming multicellular vesicles (MCVs) around the sclerites. The MCVs and the pseudopods disappeared at sclerite maturation, followed by degradation of the sclerocytes around the mature sclerites. At the colony base, granular vesicles were distributed among the sclerites, indicating a cementing process in progress. These findings suggest that colonies of Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into spiculite, thus making them reef builders.

Do Not Stop: The Importance of Seamless Monitoring and Enforcement in an Indonesian Marine Protected Area

The harvesting of groupers (Serranidae) in Indonesia for the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT) has been ongoing since the late 1980s. Eight sites in Komodo National Park that included two fish spawning aggregation (FSA) sites were monitored for groupers and humphead wrasse,Cheilinus undulatus, from 1998 to 2003 and from 2005 to 2008 to examine temporal changes in abundance and assess the effectiveness of conservation and management efforts. Monitoring identified FSA sites for squaretail coralgrouper,Plectropomus areolatus, and brown-marbled grouper,Epinephelus fuscoguttatus. Both species formed aggregations before and during full moon from September to December, prior to lapses in monitoring (2003–2005) and in enforcement (2004-2005). Following these lapses, data reveal substantial declines inP. areolatusabundance and the apparent extirpation of one aggregation at one site. Other non-aggregating species targeted by the LRFFT showed similar declines at three of eight monitored sites. This paper highlights the impact of FSA fishing and the need for a seamless monitoring and enforcement protocol in areas where aggregation fishing pressure is high. Within Komodo National Park, local fishers, particularly those operating on behalf of the LRFFT, pose a serious threat to population persistence of species targeted by this trade.