Lithuanian Independence Research Articles

Reception of the Russian Statute of Civil Procedure of 1864 in Lithuania during 1918–40

The authors of this article examine historical reasons underlying the enactment of the Statute on Civil Procedure of Russia of 1864 in Lithuania after the declaration of independence in 1918. The Statute of 1864 became effective in 1883, when Lithuania was still part of Russian Empire. In 1918 Lithuania declared independence, but due to the fundamentally changed economic and social living conditions of the society it was impossible to restore the validity of the Third Lithuanian Statute of 1588, which was valid until 1840. It was therefore a logical step to receive the legal acts which were valid until August 1, 1914, including the Statute of 1864. The receipt of the Statute of 1864 is also justified by the fact that the Statute was a modern legal act and borrowed many progressive ideas from the civil procedure law of Western countries, especially from France. The authors, based on historical sources, also examine the problems of the interpretation and applications of the Statute of 1864 by the Lithuanian courts during 1918–40. Such problems were related to the new organization of the court system in Lithuania, lack of qualified lawyers, translation of the Statute from Russian language to Lithuanian language, lack of Lithuanian doctrine of law in the area of civil procedure, disagreement regarding the possibility of the application of the former case law of Russian courts, especially Russian Senate, etc. Nevertheless, the Statute has been successfully applied until the 1940 and it was one of the reason that the Lithuanian Code of Civil Procedure was not adopted until 1940. The Statute of 1864 was again rediscovered after 1990, when the restoration of Lithuanian independence was made, and important changes in the Code of Civil Procedure of 1964 were introduced. The Statute of 1864 was also analyzed during the preparation of the new Code of Civil Procedure of Lithuania of 2002.

BIOGRAFISTIKOS SAMPRATA LIETUVOS IR UŽSIENIO TYRĖJŲ DARBUOSE

The article investigates the conception of biographistics on the basis of works of Eastern and other countries researchers of biographistics. The greatest attention was paid to the explanation of the concept, object and functions of biographistics. Therefore, these conclusions were made by generalizing the considerations provided therein. Biographistics occupies a significant place in the communication and information field in Lithuania. Only after 1990 it was perceived that the place of the science of bibliological biographistics is one of the constituent parts of biographistics with its own object of investigation, range of problems, methods and sources.The development of the bibliological Lithuanian biographistics covers four periods. These are: bibliological biographistics until the 1918 Lithuanian independence period, period of Lithuanian independence in 1918–1940, Soviet period and investigations of contemporary bibliological biographistics after 1990. During the period of independent Lithuania, the preparation of comprehensive basis of the sources of biographistics was commenced, and further scientific investigations were possible due to information that has been publicized or preserved in the manuscripts. During the first years of independence, owing to efforts of prof. V. Biržiška, J. Tumas-Vaižgantas and other researchers, the creation of a methodology for preparing biographic publications was commenced, yet the scientists did not succeed in the accomplishment thereof. During the Soviet times, scientific investigations that had been started during the first Lithuanian independence period were continued in the bibliological biographistics. Discussions were held on issues associated with the theory and methodology of biographistics. The stage of contemporary bibliological deve-lopment of biographistics is associated with the second period of the Lithuanian independence during which the science reached maturity. During this period, theory and methodology of the science was formed, different biographic publications were prepared, as well as long-term projects were implemented.The investigations of bibliological biographistics were carried out by a plentiful number of scientists theoreticians and practicians who worked in the field of bibliography, bibliology, literature studies or history. The most prominent of them are V. Biržiška, J. Tumas-Vaižgantas, A. Bruožis, P. Ruseckas, D. Kaunas, J. Lebedys, V. Merkys, G. Raguotienė, V. Stonienė, V. Žukas, etc.It should be noted that the biography method is a method of both, general scientific and special method of bibliological biographistics. This is an investigation into the world of the book character as a personality, and its activities associated with the world of books, into the composition whereof not only the studies of the manuscript and printed heritage should be integrated, but also conversations of both, with the person himself, and with the persons who knew him should be included. Using the biographic method, a life history of the book character is sought to be comprehensively understood and disclosed, as well as the conditions of his formation to be analyzed.The organization of biographistics studies has been formed both, in Lithuania and in other foreign countries. The Institute of Documentation and Book Science of Vilnius University and the Centre of the Bibliography and Book Science of Martynas Mazvydas National Library of Lithuania have become the main research centres of the bibliogy based science of biographistics in the country. A positive impact is made by the international Auto/Biography Association which forms not only the theory and methodology of this field, arranges symposiums, international conferences or seminars by bringing together scientists from all over the world, but also fosters the sharing of experience in the investigations into the field of biographistics.

MANIFESTATION OF POSTMODERNIST IDEAS IN ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITIONS AND UNREALIZED DESIGN PROJECTS IN LITHUANIA OF THE 1970S AND 80S / POSTMODERNIZMO IDĖJŲ RAIŠKA XX A. 8-OJO IR 9-OJO DEŠIMTMEČIŲ LIETUVOS ARCHITEKTŪROS DARBŲ KONKURSUOSE IR NEĮGYVENDINTUOSE

The research work analyzes the influence of the post-modernism phenomenon on Lithuanian architecture as observed since the 1970-s. This controversially estimated period in architectural history opposed the modernist tradition by its cultural and aesthetical landmarks. In the Lithuanian context it was distinguished by the raise of its expression partially overlapping with the period of post-soviet socio-cultural fractures. After short introduction of prerequisites of postmodernist idea formation in architecture, the text focuses on the main ideological concepts and characteristic features of architecture related to postmodernism. Besides the evaluation of influence of western postmodernist architecture on the soviet space, the aim of the article is to analyze the objects innovative by their aesthetics, applied symbolism and treatment of their application to the society in the sociocultural context of the time. The text focuses on unrealized projects and competition offers of the 1970-s and 80-s (from the emergence of the first examples to the reestablishment of Lithuanian independence) with most brightly reflected postmodern trends: complex composition, eclecticism, historical references and decreasing scale. The examples analyzed in the research are a part of culture of the complicated transformation time, which is underestimated. Darbe nagrinėjama postmodernizmo fenomeno Lietuvos architektūroje įtaka, ryškėjanti nuo XX a. 8-ojo dešimtmečio. Kontroversiškai vertinamas architektūros istorijos periodas savo kultūriniais ir estetiniais orientyrais oponavo modernizmo tradicijai. Lietuvos kontekstui būdinga tai, kad jo raiškos pakilimas iš dalies sutapo su posovietinių sociokultūrinių lūžių laikotarpiu. Trumpai aptariant postmodernizmo idėjų formavimosi architektūroje prielaidas, išskiriami pagrindiniai idėjiniai su postmodernizmu siejamos architektūros konceptai ir būdingieji bruožai. Straipsnio tikslas – siekiant įvertinti Vakarų postmodernizmo architektūros diskurso sovietinėje erdvėje įtaką, išnagrinėti anuometiniame sociokultūriniame kontekste savo estetika, simbolikos vartojimu, taikymo visuomenei traktavimu inovatyvius objektus. Tekste koncentruojamasi į XX a. 8-ojo ir 9-ojo dešimtmečių (nuo pirmųjų pavyzdžių atsiradimo iki nepriklausomybės atgavimo) nerealizuotus projektus ir konkursinius pasiūlymus, kuriuose ryškiausiai atsispindi postmodernizmo tendencijos: kompozicijos sudėtingumas, eklektiškumas, istorinės referencijos, mastelio smulkėjimas. Minimi pavyzdžiai yra sudėtingų permainų laiko kultūros dalis, apie kurią kalbama nepakankamai.

The changes in the content and opportunities of literary education in primary school after the reestablishment of Lithuanian independence

The education reform carried out after Lithuania regained independence in 1990 has been extensively reported on and evaluated in a number of publications. This type of research is important not only in order to understand the history of Lithuanian education, but also to be able to formulate a perspective of education for future generations. Furthermore, having a thorough understanding of the education reform is also crucial for specialists in charge of the change of today‘s education, authors of alternative textbooks and teachers. The present article deals with a narrow yet fundamental field, i.e. literary education and its change in primary education after the education reform. The theoretical works and documents on aspects of cultural and educational policy written by Dr. M. Lukšienė and other authors of the education reform have influenced the new type of literary education in primary education. The results of a comparative analysis of former and integrated curricula and the contents of the fist integrated textbooks as well as aspects such as the depolitisation of education, integration of literary and language education, new criteria for choosing literary works and their analysis have been integrated into the scope of the article.
 The changes in the school of independent Lithuania started with primary education. This may be the reason why Dr. Meilė Lukšienė, one of the authors of the education reform, focused on the implementation of the curriculum of primary education. She guided the authors of the integrated programme of the Lithuanian language (1992) and reviewed and evaluated the textbooks of the Lithuanian language written in the framework of this programme (1992–1996).
 Throughout the Soviet occupation, the teaching of Lithuanian in primary education was subdivided into segments such as coherent speech, reading, writing, grammar etc. The teaching of Lithuanian was also imbued with Soviet ideology, clearly delineated and academic. The introduction of a new segment into the curriculum of Lithuanian as the first language, i.e. ‘Coherent speech’ was supposed to act as a link between the different parts of the curriculum. It is hard to say whether the aims stipulated in the curriculum were actually achieved in the educational process; however, they were clearly not present in the teaching materials used back then: different textbooks of the different parts of the curriculum were written by different authors who were only interested in serving the purposes of their segments of the curriculum. ‘Coherent speech’ was ultimately to take form of an exercise book.
 This type of teaching and learning was criticised by some Lithuanian linguists, writers and pedagogues. Dr. Meilė Lukšienė underscored the importance of the national culture in educating the young generation in the Soviet period. After regaining independence it was crucial to change and depoliticize language education. A new concept of education was introduced by Dr. Meilė Lukšienė and her colleagues. The concept focuses on the child and not on the subject matter. Their input and insights have helped to create new tendencies of language education. The article focuses on the results of a comparative analysis of integrated and former curricula of the Lithuanian language. Furthermore, the fundamental differences between the goals stipulated in the former and integrated curricula are highlighted. The new curriculum consists of the following central points: 1. integration of literary and language education, 2. prioritizing folklore, ethnography, national literature as part of the national culture, 3. the artistic quality of literary works, 4. differentiated education of the learner’s feelings, creativity and thinking capacity.
 The new tendencies were implemented in the integrated textbooks Šaltinėlis and Šaltinis (written by Elena Marcelionienė and Vida Plentaitė). Th textbooks have a clear system consisting of two planes: fist, a framework encompassing introduction to reading, literary and basic cultural skills was set up. Secondly, guidelines for language education based on the different stages of the child‘s development were introduced. The integration of the two planes has made the teaching of Lithuanian more practical: in this way, the child’s speech and language are developed through experience and the comprehension of texts becomes more complete and emotional, which is very important in the child’s education.
 The ongoing education reform focuses on the differentiation and individualization of education. These two features of education, extensively described by Dr. Lukšienė in her concept of national education, are essential in improving the curriculum of Lithuanian in primary education.

LIETUVOS BIBLIOFILIJA SOVIETMEČIU: ISTORIOGRAFINIS ASPEKTAS

The article aims to disclose scientific or other professed evaluations of Lithuanian bibliophilia in the Soviet period. The research basis consists of historiographical literature. Exiguous historiography of the subject may be divided into two stages: 1) until 1990 and 2) after 1990. Works published in the first stage provides information on the conception of bibliophilia of that time, its origins, and historical development and the atmosphere in which it had functioned. Usually authors of the latter works declared about an ostensibly newly formed socialistic bibliophilia and its changed social and cultural functions. More significant and numerous evaluations of bibliophilia of the said period have been traced from the second half of the eight decade. This tendencymay be explained by the fact that starting from the establishment of Voluntary Society of Book Lovers of Lithuanian SSR in 1974 an organized movement of book lovers emerged which of itself motivated raising issues related to book and solving them, and at the same time encouraged to rethink the conception of the bibliophilia and its tasks. Among more important authors of bibliophilia interpretations we may distinguish two public figures: Vladas Žukas and Levas Vladimirovas.Until 2008–2012, when the author of these lines started the research of Lithuanian bibliophilia in the Soviet period, and generalized its results in several scientific and science popular publications as well as in her doctoral dissertation, there have been no considerate or special scientific evaluations devoted specifically to this phenomenon. It may be maintained that after regaining Lithuanian independence certain evaluations were based on reflections of generalcharacter, personal experience or even on presentiments, more rarely – on unpublished or published sources. Authors of the said period had a more or less negative preconceived attitude towards bibliophilia and its activities in the Soviet period. Bibliophilia was reviewed passingly in its separate specific layers. Solving general issues of Lithuanian bibliophilia history, theory, methodology and organization we not rarely touch bibliophilia of the Soviet period. Within eyeshot of researchers most often emerge Vilnius Mažvydas and Plungė Daukantas Book Lovers Clubs which played an important role in the history of Lithuanian bibliophilia and which have been continuing their activities up to the present. In other cases we limit ourselves to brief description of general state of bibliophilia or its assessment which usually consists of several sentences or paragraphs, traditionally negative, sometimes unfavourable conditions for bibliophilia development are accentuated.Further development of the research of Lithuanian bibliophilia in the Soviet period will depend on accessibility to new sources and potentialitiesthey could provide as well as research capacities.

WHY INTERWAR LITHUANIA DID LOSE VILNIUS AND CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIA LAGS BEHIND ESTONIA?

Straipsnyje lyginamas nacionalinių pinigų įvedimas ir stabilizacija Pirmojoje ir Antrojoje Lietuvos Respublikose (LR I ir LR II). Šie diachroniniai palyginimai papildomi sinchroniniais – LR I lyginama su Estija, Latvija ir Lenkija, o LR II – su Estija ir Latvija, gretimomis šalimis, kurios vienu metu sprendė nacionalinės valstybės kūrimo ir makroekonominės stabilizacijos problemas. Ir vienoje, ir kitoje epochoje LR paskutinė įsivedė nacionalinius pinigus, nors tarpukariu tik Latvija aplenkė Lietuvą tuos pinigus galutinai stabilizuodama. Palyginimų tikslas yra išaiškinti LR vėlavimo priežastis ir jo padarinius. Pirmiausia išryškinami LR I ir LR II ekonominės situacijos pirmaisiais nepriklausomybės metais panašumai ir skirtumai. Išryškinant panašumus, parodoma, kad sovietinio komandinio-administracinio ūkio prototipas buvo Pirmojo pasaulinio karo laikų kaizerinės Vokietijos karinė administracinė ekonomika, kurios poligonu tapo Oberosto kraštas (apėmęs ir šiuolaikinės Lietuvos teritoriją), kur administracinė ūkinės veiklos kontrolė įgijo griežčiausias formas. Grįžimą prie kapitalistinės laisvosios rinkos ekonomikos ir makroekonominės pusiausvyros atkūrimą ankstyvuoju tarpukariu sukomplikavo nepaprastosios išlaidos nepriklausomybės karams, dar tik besikuriančioms nacionalinėms valstybėms neturint administracinių gebėjimų surinkti tradicinio tipo mokesčius. Visos Lietuvos kaimynės nepriklausomybės karus finansavo infliaciniu mokesčiu, pačioje nepriklausomybės pradžioje įsivedusios nacionalinius pinigus ir iki 2/3 visų valstybės pajamų gaudamos iš senjoražo. Vos ne tarp visų nepriklausomybės karus moderniaisiais laikais kariavusių šalių LR I unikali savo monetarine „neoliberalia iki neoliberalizmo“ finansų politika, išsivertusi be senjoražo pajamų, padovanotų Vokietijai, su kuria Lietuva iki pat 1922 m. išlaikė pinigų sąjungą. Nepriklausomybės atkūrimo laikais delsimą nutraukti pinigų sąjungą su buvusiu imperiniu siuzerenu (Rusija) lėmė Gedimino Vagnoriaus vyriausybės pasirinkimas ir po tarptautinio LR II nepriklausomybės pripažinimo 1991 m. rudenį tęsti pirmoje tų metų pusėje pasiteisinusias infliacijos lenktynes, kuriose išlošdavo sparčiausiai atlyginimus ir kainas keliančios rublio zonos narės. Taigi dėl taupios LR I finansų politikos ankstyvojo tarpukario Lietuva kentėjo tik dėl importuojamos iš Vokietijos infliacijos, atsikovojusi nepriklausomybę ir toliau išlaidavusi Lietuva infliaciją iš Rusijos ir importavo, ir eksportavo. 1992 m. rudenį talonui tapus vienintele teisėta mokėjimo priemone, LR II vyriausybė dar aštuonis mėnesius savo išlaidoms dengti naudojo infliacinį mokestį, vykdydama moraliai nepateisinamą taikos sąlygomis finansų politiką, kuri dėl masinės privatizacijos vykdymo artimomis hiperinfliacijai sąlygomis turėjo pragaištingų ilgalaikių padarinių Lietuvos ekonominei raidai – nulėmė jos didėjantį atsilikimą nuo Estijos. O tarpukario nepriklausomybės pradžios LR I vyriausybės padarė strateginę klaidą, atsisakydamos infliacinio mokesčio nepaprastosioms nepriklausomybės karo išlaidoms finansuoti. Jis mažiau gyventojų turinčioms ir ne mažiau už Lietuvą nuo Pirmojo pasaulinio karo veiksmų nukentėjusioms Estijai ir Latvijai davė išteklių mobilizuoti apie 70 000 vyrų kariuomenes. Vykdydama neadekvačią karo sąlygoms taupią ir atsakingą finansų politiką, valstietiškai šykšti Lietuva 1920 m. rudenį turėjo tik apie 30 000 vyrų kariuomenę, kuri buvo per maža ir silpna apginti Vilnių nuo vienos dvarponiškai išlaidžios Lenkijos (kuri kaip ir kitos Lietuvos kaimynės savo 1918–1920 m. karus finansavo iš infliacinio mokesčio pajamų) tariamai sukilusios divizijos.

Odzwierciedlenie przemian życia politycznego Litwy końca XX w. w historiografii litewskiej

Sąjūdis (Lithuanian independence movement) as an object of scholarly investigation has a certain history or maybe even a historiographic tradition. One of the first who started to investigate this problem was the representative of Lithuanian diaspora in the US, professor of the University of Wisconsin Alfred Eric Senn. The changes of Lithuanian political life during the revival period were analyzed also by the Sąjūdis members themselves: Bronislovas Genzelis and Virgilijus Juozas Čepaitis. However, they often fail to avoid subjective views of certain personalities, their data is not always based on sources. Only at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries Sąjūdis received proper attention from historians. The society at large was presented with scholarly publications, collections of articles and sources on particular subjects. Among these publications one can distinguish the one written by Česlovas Laurinavičius and Vladas Sirutavičius which deals with the political history of Lithuania in 1988–1990. After the careful analysis of scholarly publications dealing with the topic of Sąjūdis, one may notice the tendency to restrict the investigations of the events only prior to the restoration of Lithuanian independence in March 1990. However, the process of transformation of spontaneous social renewal movement into a public organization is still remaining a white spot in history. There are several reasons for this, the most important of which is, to my mind, political. Historians are not willing to confuse their scientific investigations with their political preferences. In the Lithuanian historiography one might notice a tendency for historical investigations of Sąjūdis to intensify prior to the anniversaries of Lithuanian independence restoration. Historians usually restricted their works to the analysis of the national revival period events taking place in the country’s capital. True, during the tenth anniversary of Sąjūdis, the situation in this sphere improved as well. There appeared a number of works devoted to local history, which dealt with the revival period in the major cities, districts and even small towns of the country. March 11, 1990 has radically changed the historic development of our nation. There appeared a new term in Lithuanian historiography: the Second Republic of Lithuania. However, this object is still viewed with some suspicion by historians. Therefore it is not possible to talk about any historical periodization of this era and one must rely on political scientists. In terms of democracy building, they do not highlight any reference points and analyze this process as one whole, starting from 1990 and continuing to this day. In the historiography of the Second Republic not enough attention is devoted to the history of Lithuanian political parties. This area is also dominated by the political scientists. The process of re-establishment of Lithuanian independence is reflected in very diverse historical sources. They include the published political speeches of famous politicians, documents, memoirs, thoughts about aspects and perspectives of present-day political life, as well as evaluations of their works by others. One must also mark the fact that interpretations of the same historical events differ in various memoirs. These events are often viewed through the prism of writers’ political views.

UNREALIZED ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTS IN LITHUANIA: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT / NEĮGYVENDINTI ARCHITEKTŪRINIAI PROJEKTAI LIETUVOJE: ISTORINĖ RAIDA

The “unrealized architectural projects” are the building projects, carried out under the specific design task and intended to be built in a particular place (site), though, for certain reasons and circumstances, have never been constructed. However, up to the present day, the topic of the “unbuilt” has been analyzed just episodically in literature and sources. The article touches upon the historical development of unrealized architectural works, as well as their artistic value and role within various historical periods of Lithuanian architecture. One of the chapters briefly reviews the relevance and development of unrealized projects during the period since Czarist Russian occupation (1795) to the restoration of Lithuanian independence (1990). Furthermore, the deeper analysis of the Soviet period (1940–1990) “dead” architecture is presented. While exploring “the unrealized”, attention has been also paid to what was actu ally built, therefore the prevailing architectural styles, tendencies and examples of the corresponding decade (in Lithuania and worldwide) have been studied. Santrauka Neįgyvendinti projektai – tai pastatų projektai, atlikti pagal konkrečią projektavimo užduotį ir skirti realizuoti konkrečioje vietoje (sklype), tačiau dėl tam tikrų priežasčių ir aplinkybių neįgavę realaus statinio pavidalo. Iki šiol ši tema literatūros šaltiniuose nagrinėta epizodiškai. Straipsnyje kalbama apie nerealizuotų darbų istorinę raidą, meninę vertę, jų vaidmenį įvairių laikotarpių Lietuvos architektūroje. Viename iš skyrių trumpai apžvelgiamas nerealizuotų projektų aktualumas ir raida nuo carinės Rusijos okupacijos (1795) iki Nepriklausomybės atgavimo metų (1990). Nuodugniau analizuojama sovietinio laikotarpio (1940–1990) vadinamoji mirusi architektūra. Tyrinėjant tai, kas nerealizuota, tenka atkreipti dėmesį ir į tai, kas buvo įgyvendinta: kokios architektūrinės srovės, mados, stiliai, tendencijos vyravo tam tikru periodu ne tik Lietuvoje, bet ir pasaulyje.

Lithuanian Political Thought in the Twentieth Century and its Reflections in Sąjūdis: What Kind of State Have Lithuanians Been Fighting For?

This article deals with the question of the conceptualization of state (Lith. valstybe) in twentieth-century Lithuanian political thought and its reflections in Sąjūdis, the Lithuanian independence movement, during the years 1988-1990. It is a commonly accepted myth that Sąjūdis restored the language of Lithuania's interwar period and thus the nation-centered, nationalistic paradigm of that period. A closer look at the political discourse of the interwar period suggests that it is misleading to talk about this kind of restitution. Furthermore, considering the fact that it is important to take into account the Soviet paradigms of the state that influenced Lithuanian political discourse for fifty years, the article finds arguments for speaking about a continuation of Soviet political discourse. Thus, along with restitution, it is possible to find continuities while conceptualizing state in Sąjūdis. While analyzing the meaning and semantic fields of those concepts, it is possible to draw arguments about the real nature of the political transformation of Soviet Lithuania.

Soviet Lithuania: A Failed Conservative Experiment?

As scholars of international relations have noted, the Cold War, which ended with the defeat of the Soviet Union was largely a propaganda war (Halliday), based on conflicting values. Yet it was not a war between the communist and capitalist moral systems; rather, it was a war between the traditionalist conservative values, promoted in the USSR when Stalin came to power and liberal or, so-called ‘progressive’ values. While the capitalist West was able to accommodate the values of the 1968 sexual revolution and the further spread of various rights, the Soviet Union clung to a version of Victorian morals in the USSR. When Stalin came to power, the Soviet Union was oriented not towards the future in terms of morality, (what Marxism is alleged to be all about), but firmly towards the past. In the light of its values the period of Sąjūdis can be characterized, on one hand, as an uneasy alliance between the traditionalists, for whom the Soviet regime was oppressive mainly because of the loss of national sovereignty and the oppression of the Catholic Church, without having any major disagreements about morals, and the West-looking part of Lithuanian society, longing for developments similar to those in the West. To borrow the dichotomy from Isaiah Berlin, the Lithuanian independence movement had one part striving for collective, positive freedom and another, which was strove for negative, personal freedom and the advancement of human rights. This dichotomy is still present in Lithuania and the system of morality, preserved by the Soviet period, is the base on which the traditionalist position stands.

Constructing National Identity: The Image of the Medieval Grand Duchy of Lithuania in Lithuanian Art from the 1920s to the 1990s

This article provides an overview of the ways in which the image of the medieval Grand Duchy of Lithuania, intended to awaken the national pride and contribute to the building of the national identity, was constructed by artistic means in the Republic of Lithuania during the 1920s and 1930s. It contains a brief discussion on the genesis of the image of the Grand Duchy, including the selection of appropriate historical heroes and events, and the main aspects of their interpretation. The article analyses some of the most striking and influential examples of the image of medieval Lithuania, such as the celebrations of the 500th anniversary of the death of Grand Duke Vytautas the Great in 1930 and art works created for that purpose, the decoration of public buildings (for example, the Museum of War and the Officers’ Club in Kaunas, and Lithuania’s pavilion in the New York World Fair of 1939). It also looks briefly at the dissemination of the image of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in popular culture. The article also touches on isolated efforts by a number of intellectuals to warn of the dangers inherent in the extreme glorification of the past. The image of the medieval Grand Duchy of Lithuania, created in interwar Lithuania, was preserved during the period of Soviet occupation. After the restoration of Lithuanian independence in 1990, this image had a significant influence on the mentality and culture of Lithuanian society at the turn of the millennium. In this respect the situation in Lithuania could be treated as a case study, for a similar relation to the past can be encountered in other European post-Communist countries faced with the problem of creating a new identity.

SVARBIAUSIŲ UGDYMO MOKSLO TERMINŲ APIBRĖŽTIS

In the latter years the main education terms became the point of rather active discussion. And it is natural, because over the last two decades education terminology expanded, a lot of new terms joined education sciences. On the one hand, such changes were caused by rapid education science development, abundant theoretical and empiric researches, on the other hand, after reestablishment of Lithuanian Independence, new possibilities opened to get acquainted with international practice, to adopt it to Lithuanian educational practice. In 2010, in Lithuania various discussions on educology terminology questions were initiated. This year, on February 11, Lithuanian Republic Education board and Vilnius Pedagogical University initiated the meeting of educology scientists on usage of educology terms in educology scientific publications, in pedagogic activity and educational documents. As practice showed, it is very difficult to find common decisions. Ambiguity, abundance of various synonymic terms became prominent in educology; the process of emergence of new terms is practically out of control, chaotic. Quite a big part of new terms are contradictory (e.g, development education, global and/or international education). It becomes unclear, what is the place of the main (axial) terms in the whole education terminology system, how the hierarchy of the whole term system is kept (or is it kept). Without attempting to go into exhaustive educology term analysis, we can give definitions of the main educology terms referring to systemic approach principle (Lamanauskas, 2004). Education – organized, expedient and purposeful life experience (knowledge, abilities and values) acquisition for life (cognition, consideration, acting) Education (enlightenment) - situational person (personality) and society’s orientation in current situation expansion in various aspects. Upbringing – education process when person’s moral is formed through interaction of values and abilities. Training – personality maturity guaranteeing parameters’ comprehensive, constant and systemic expansion and development. Teaching – education process when person’s intellect is formed through the interaction of knowledge and person’s abilities. In fact, there is no absolute agreement among educology specialists regarding the usage of terms. Such an agreement can hardly be reached, because the same terms in different contexts acquire different meanings and can be differently interpreted. Education, first of all, is a complex, diverse phenomenon. On the one hand, by education we seek that a person would acquire knowledge and abilities (intellect formation), on the other hand – could perceive the world of values (moral formation). Education, as a very complex system, features hierarchic structure and functional organisation. Changing easily any term or implementing a new one, we are trying, in fact, to change the system, very often not thinking about consequences. New terms matter cannot be end in itself. Education (enlightenment), obviously is multilevel, hierarchic, complex and developing social system requiring systemic attitude, systemic analysis, systemic research in general – in this case, on the education science terminology aspect. Key words: education terms, usage of terms, education science, definition.

The Fake History: Soviet Totalitarianism and the Memory of the Guerrilla War

The historiography of the Lithuanian guerrilla war of 1944–1953 is usually considered to be wide. However, the same may not be applied to the integration of the guerrilla war into the historical culture of contemporary Lithuania. The variety of opinions and interpretations indicates that there exists no traditional understanding of the war. That also makes it impossible for any of the positions to be regarded as "critical" or "revisionist," as there is nothing to revise or criticize. This feature makes the guerrilla war exceptional among most historical events and requires some scientific explanation. The purpose of this article is to find one. The term "historical culture" was formulated by the German historian Jėim Riisen. It defines the role of history in organizing the worldview of society and forming its identity. Therefore, historical culture includes all stages of history telling and writing—from family to university. The key element of historical culture is historical narrative. J. Riisen distinguishes four types of narratives: the traditional narrative, the exemplary narrative, the critical narrative, and the genetic narrative. The interaction of these types of narratives defines the dynamics of historical culture. After some important historical event, the traditional and the exemplary narratives come first. They incorporate the event into the historical tradition of society. Later, the critical narratives appear that challenge the tradition. Finally, the genetic narratives help to grasp the changes in the tradition itself. This scheme does not work with the Lithuanian guerrilla war of 1944–1953. The systematic Soviet repressions were aimed at the complete destruction of the Lithuanian social pattern. They prevented the traditional and the exemplary narratives from appearing. There were some stories and memoirs of the guerrilla fighters and their supporters, but these did not spread because of terror. People were silenced and then introduced to the Soviet narrative, which may only be defined as quasi-historical because it was a part of the propaganda. Imitating the "popular" and the "scientific" approaches, the Soviet regime spread its narrative and constructed the quasi-historical culture, which was itself a part of the "fictitious world of stability," as the philosopher Hannah Arendt described it. This way, the Lithuanian society was forced to live with fake history. After the restoration of Lithuanian independence in 1990, the Soviet quasi-historical culture collapsed together with the regime. However, the damage was already done. The real historical culture did not form. This circumstance explains the absence of the traditional interpretation of the guerrilla war. It also indicates that the restoration of independence was also the renewal of the trauma caused by the Soviet repressions. Therefore, the Lithuanian historical culture has a "black hole," which needs to be filled if society means to return to normal life. There were efforts to restore the so-called "historical justice." But these were merely of political or judicial character. There were laws passed that provided justification for the guerrilla fighters' status. There were also criminal cases initiated against Soviet secret agents and collaborators. However, these efforts did not help the tradition to evolve, as they were not accepted by society. Therefore, it is argued in this article that historical studies should now play their part. The historical studies do not come from the "structures of power" but from the inside of society. They could more fruitfully trigger discussions and help to find some reasonable common points. This way, the traditional interpretation of the guerrilla war could be slowly built, and the historical culture would regain its normal dynamics.

LEGAL BASIS FOR LAND USE MANAGEMENT IN INTEWAR LITHUANIA

The paper discusses legal documents related to land use management. The main legal principles are evaluated that played an important part in land use management in the period of the Lithuanian independence in 1918–1940. One of the most important documents was The Issue of Land Reform. The author of this document was Mykolas Krupavičius. In land use regulation the main question is land property. The issues related with land use management are evaluated in accordance with public interest. These issues and their principles are compared with those of today.

The Usefulness of Management Accounting Information: Users’ Attitudes

During the years of Lithuanian economic independence, much emphasis is laid on financial accounting and auditing, whereas management accounting has been languishing in the background.This paper investigates the role and development of management accounting and the usefulness of its information perceived by managers. The management accounting system is characterized in terms of information. These characteristics are: scope, timeliness, the level of aggregation, and information which assists integration.Empirical support for the relationship between the features of management information and its perceived usefulness is provided using data gathered from questionnaires and interviews. The search for usefulness of management accounting information was guided by the accounting research literature. The goal has been to determine what features of information are recognized by managers and accountants as useful.The results of analysis have shown that all interviewed managers perceived management accounting (economic and non-economic) information as useful. However, the level of their scores has been higher than that of accountants.There had been no comprehensive study involving the evaluation of usefulness of accounting information by Lithuanian managers. The present study has been undertaken to learn more about how Lithuanian managers perceive the usefulness of management accounting information. This was the principal objective of this research. Since managers’satisfaction with the accounting system could be highly biased, the next objective was to determine whether accountants perceived the same features of information as useful. The third objective of this study was to review the possibilities for the development of management accounting systems.Thus, the purpose of this paper was to examine the perception of usefulness of accounting information by its suppliers and users.The paper proceeds as follows. We describe management accounting, its role and development. We provide a framework for the survey based on a review of the extensive literature on research published by foreign management accounting journals during the period 1980-2005, including Accounting, Organizations and Society. The Accounting Review, Contemporary Accounting Research, Journal of Accounting and Economics, Journal of Management Accounting Research, Strategic Finance, Business and Finance History. Cost Accounting Magazine, Management Accounting Quarterly. A survey and its statistical analysis are presented. The final section contains conclusions.

The Former Soviet Union's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook by James s> Minahan (review)

REVIEWS 385 Inevitably,in a book covering over a centuryin two-hundredpages, there are questionsraisedthat beg fulleranswers.Neuburgernotes that a pervasive conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims appeared only at the end of the Ottoman period and that there was a pro-Ottoman tradition in Bulgarian nationalism that favoured a Turkish-Bulgarian 'Dual-Monarchy' on the Austro-Hungarianmodel, based on economic interests,anti-Greeksentiment, and the BulgarianExarchate and millet. The regime of the powerful Stefan Stambolov in the i88os and 'gos subscribedto this tradition.It is not entirely clear, from the author's account, how this philo-Turkish tradition came to be so decisively and permanently rejected in favour of such a determinedly anti-Turkishideology, though it appearsa crucial turningpoint was reached after Stambolov'sfall. Most noticeable by its absence from the book, however, is the Muslim side of the story:just how did the Pomaks and Turks view and articulate their own senses of identity? Can one speak of a Pomak or a BulgarianTurkish nationality?But this is not so much a criticismof Neuburger'sbook, as a plea for a sequel. FaculyofHistog MARKoATTILA HoARE Universiy of Cambridge Minahan,James. TheFormer SovietUnion's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook. Ethnic Diversity Within Nations Series. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA, Denver CO and Oxford, 2004. xvii + 387 pp. Illustrations.Maps. Bibliographies.Index. ?38.95. FAR too little information is available in the West concerning the many peoples that made up the Soviet Union. A handy referenceworkis certainlya usefultool. It must be noted, however, thatJames Minahan did not set out to write a definitiveworkcoveringall the variousSoviet nationalities.His workis intended to explore the theme, establishedby the seriesABC-CLIO is bringing together, of Ethnic Diversity Within Nations. The purpose of this work, and others in the series,is to 'help readersin the United Statesand elsewhere better appreciatehow societiesin many partsof the world have struggledwith the challengesof diversity'(p.xiv).It is, in short,not aimed at Russianspecialists , but at a more general readership;it does not assume any preexisting knowledge of Russian history and tends to concentrate on the larger, more famous national groups. With this aim in mind, Minahan has eschewed the simple approachwhich most specialistswould expect from such a referencework of just listing these peoples in alphabeticalorder, with a single entry for each. Rather the book is separatedinto ten chapters.The first,Prehistoryto AD 1500, examines the period untilthe Tatar conquest,then comes the period until the reignof Peter the Great. The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are covered in chapter three. The next four chapters cover successivelythe years I900-21, I920-38, 1939-70 and I97I9I. The final chapterscover the disintegrationof the Soviet 386 SEER, 84, 2, 2oo6 Union, the subsequentspread of national sentiment within the Russian Federation and the Russian reaction to the loss of empire. Each chapter begins with a short narrativehistory of the period in question, followed by sections addressing the major national groupings, for example the Balts, Caucasian peoples, Central Asians, Siberians, with subsections on the most important nationalitieswithin those groupings Altai, Buriats,Sakhas,Tuvans, etc.. A very brief summarynarrativefollows, then a timeline, a glossaryof significant people, places and events and finally a very brief bibliography. There are occasionallyshort documentarysources for instance a White House press statement on Lithuanian independence (p. 284) included for no readily apparentreason. Such an approach has its strengths and its weaknesses. The narrative introductionshelp the uninformed reader and cut down repetition, and the glossariescan clarifyissuesraised.But they include some annoying errorsand misconceptions, for example that the Bolsheviksgave Moscow's Red Square its name (p. I50),that the RussianProvisionalGovernment'lostsupportowing to factionalismand corruption'(p. I5o)and that Stalinbecame supremeleader in I924 (P. i6o). Then there is the knottyquestionof which peoples to include and which to omit. The omission of some of the smallestpeoples, numbering a few hundred at most, the Kamas, Kereks and Tofalars, for instance, is no great surprise.Also the Pamirpeoples, also generallyvery small groups, the Bartangs, Ishkashmiand Oroshori, were probably not worth individual mention in a work of this type, though a collective entry on them would have beenjustified.Some of the Siberianpeoples not mentioned do numberseveral thousand though, such as the Chulyms and Nivkhi. Given the nature of the work...

Sąjudis a Partia Komunistyczna Litwy

The paper describes in detail the Lithuanian path to independence, concentrating on the role of the Sàjûdis party and its relations with the Communist Party of Lithuania (CPL). The CPL leaders had been observing the activity of Sàjûdis with anxiety since its very beginning. The party, founded on October 22, 1988 was in favor of the restoration of the Lithuanian state. Consequently, the victory of Sàjûdis in the election of February 24, 1990 accelerated the activities leading to the proclamation of Lithuanian independence. On March 12 the Second Congress of People’s Deputies of the USSR was to commence in Moscow, where the USSR President was to be elected and the Law on secession from the USSR was to be enacted that could have made it impossible for the Lithuanian republic to depart from the USSR. Therefore the session of the newly elected Supreme Council was scheduled to commence on March 10, 1990. It was then that the Supreme Council passed the Law on the Name and National Emblem which officially promulgated the country’s name as the Republic of Lithuania, and reintroduced the historic emblem depicting a mounted knight: Vytis. By this token, the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian Socialist Soviet Republic was transformed to become the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania, via an intermediary Lithuanian Supreme Council. What followed was the proclamation of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania Act on the Re-establishment of the State of Lithuania. By this token the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania proclaimed that the execution of the sovereign powers of the State of Lithuania, „abolished by foreign forces in 1940”, was re-established, and henceforth Lithuania became an independent state.

Wiews of the nation's memories: A stereotyped vision of the Lithuanian history of the 20th century in Lithuanian documentary films

The article aims to answer the following questions: what are the reasons for the stereotyped vision of the Lithuanian history? What views have become conventional representations of certain historical events, phenomena, and processes in Lithuania? A series of documentary films on the Lithuanian history of the 20th century created in 1990-2004 has been chosen as the object of the analysis. The analysis has shown that manifestations of stereotyped visions of the Lithuanian history are determined by certain cinematographic tendencies. Historical films and programs that are considered to be an adaptation of the national narrative cinematography have been predominant since the Lithuanian independence in 1991. This kind of narration is characterized by the validation of history as a national value, formation of national identity, and its stabilization rather than diversification and correction of the historical memory or the development of critical thinking. The current documentary material that is based on the understanding of history as a myth of the nation's history is not aimed at creating a new visual and verbal narration about the realities of the past, but rather at recognizing what has been said and made in the previous works. The repetition of the visions is also related to visual material as illustration rather than a perception of it as a historical source of a certain fact. Due to such thinking of creators of documentary films, they are not very ardent in seeking new material for films in foreign archives of view and sound. Also, Lithuanian history sometimes is being represented by pictures taken from facts that are not originally Lithuanian. Besides, sometimes a real meaning of views is being hidden under an additional comment behind the picture. Such tendencies have been observed in representing the most important historical events and processes for the Lithuanian statehood of the 20th century - namely, the occupation of Vilnius and Klaipeda, the restitution of Vilnius, the annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union, collectivization, the National Revival Movement "Atgimimas" of 1991, and finally, the events of January 13th.

Išlaidų apskaita ir produkcijos savikainos kalkuliavimas: tyrimų kryptys ir tobulinimo galimybės

Straipsnyje nagrinėjama svarbiausio buhalterinės apskaitos baro - išlaidų apskaitos ir produkcijos savikainos kalkuliavimo tyrimų kryptys ir tobulinimo galimybės: išlaidų apskaitos ir produkcijos savikainos kalkuliavimo ryšiai; išlaidų apskaitos ir produkcijos savikainos kalkuliavimo metodai ir jų klasifikavimo požymiai; išlaidų biudžetų sudarymas ir jų analizės svarba; išlaidų atsakomybės nustatymas ir jų efektyvumo vertinimas.

Die Evangelisch-Reformierte Kirche Litauens 1915–40 (Fortsetzung)

The article, based on church documents and publications of leading church members, traces the renaissance of the evangelical-reformed (Calvinist) Church in Lithuania during the interwar period. Few Lithuanians know that the Reformed Church was founded in 1555 in Vilnius at the height of the Reformation during the reign of Sigismund II Augustus and under the protection of Lithuania's chancellor Nicholas Radvila (Radziwiłł). It was called Unitas Lituaniae, to distinguish it from the Reformed Church founded in Poland. It was given a carefully planned synodal-presbyterian structure which stood the test of time and withstood centuries of adversity during the Counter Reformation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and, after the partitions, under Tsarist rule. Purely ethnic Lithuanians resided in northern Lithuania in areas of Birzai and Kedainiai, historical residences of the now extinct Protestant branch of the Radvila family. It is to this day a stronghold of the Lithuanian Reformed Christianity. At the time of the Lithuanian independence in 1918, the Church represented a small but tenacious minority which, reclaiming its historical name, vigorously reasserted its presence in the new Republic. With Vilnius falling under Polish control, the Church leadership chose Birzai as its new (temporary) center. In the first decade of independence, the Reformed Lithuanians, despite their small number, were disproportionately represented in the professions and in government. Discriminatory tendencies did not appear until the thirties. The powerful Catholic Church, acting under its new Code of Canon Laws, revived historical theological hostilities and stereotypes and identified nationality with Catholicism. This shaped public opinion for years to come and was especially galling to Reformed Lithuanians, who were proud of their historical roots. These attitudes still exist and present a challenge for the future.