Lithium Brine Research Articles

Lithium and strontium isotopic systematics in the Nalenggele River catchment of Qaidam basin, China: Quantifying contributions to lithium brines and deciphering lithium behavior in hydrological processes

The salt lakes fed by the Nalenggele River in the Qaidam Basin, located on the northeastern Qinghai Tibetan Plateau (QTP), are major brine lithium reservoirs in China. The quantitative identifications of the Li sources and their dynamic behavior shed light on the formation mechanism of the brine Li deposits in closed-basin of arid regions. This study presents Li and Sr isotope ratios (δ7Li, 87Sr/86Sr) and other hydrogeochemical parameters for river waters, springs, spring river waters, shallow groundwaters, surface brines, and intercrystalline brines around the Nalenggele River Basin (NRB) and its adjacent small watersheds. The results indicate that the Nalenggele River water is a mixing product of hot springs and regional surface meltwater, and the source of dissolved Li in the NRB is mainly supplied by the hot springs. With multi-tracer models, it is confirmed that around 84.9 %−93.4 % of dissolved Li is provided by the Li-rich hot spring waters, which account for only 3–5 % of the total water input. Furthermore, the dissolved Li in the streams of different hydrological regions shows various isotopic fractionation behavior. In general, the lower average δ7Li values (average of +5.6 ‰) with more enriched Li with respect to Na in the waters of the piedmont Gobi region indicates a significant additional input of dissolved Li from bedrock and sediments. The second-stage alluvial fan of the NRB produces 7Li enrichments and Li-depleted waters (compared with Na), which can be explained by the adsorption of clay or Fe (Mn) oxide phases that fractionate Li isotopes. The highest average δ7Li values (+12.76 ‰) are observed when Li is not adsorbed by the scarce fine clastic sediments in the hypersaline environment of the salt lake region. It can be concluded that the continuous halite precipitation during the brine evolution not only causes the abnormal enrichment of Li in the brine (compared with Na) but also continuously sequesters the 6Li from the brines, resulting in a significant 7Li enrichment. Overall, these findings advance the understanding of the lithium sources of Li-rich brines and its enrichment and metallogenic process during water migration in hyper-arid regions and have crucial indicative significance for lithium cycling under a strong evaporation environment.

(Invited) Lithium Recovery from Geothermal Brines

Lithium is a critical raw material for developing current lithium-ion batteries and prospective next-generation batteries. Its reserves are concentrated in a handful of countries. It is primarily extracted from continental brines, wherein Li+ is relatively concentrated (0.3 –1.5 wt%) in a complex mixture of many more components with relatively large water solubilities.Current practices to extract lithium from continental brines involve evaporation, i.e., >90% of water. Eventually, the concentration of Li+ intensifies up to 6–7%, in a brine which follows numerous chemical processing steps, to ultimately produce battery-grade lithium chemicals. Despite being the easiest and currently most cost-effective practices, these are inefficient and unsustainable (chemical-intensive, requires extensive land use and time, and delivers large volumes of waste), especially in the context of the sharp increase in the demand for lithium that is already happening and is expected to endure in the coming decades.To sustainably meet the future demand for lithium, it is imperative to develop more efficient extraction methods, which are faster, less climate/weather reliant, minimize waste production, and especially deal with water differently than current industrial processing (i.e., circumventing evaporation). Besides being applicable to concentrated lithium brines, characteristic of primary extraction, these methods should especially be applicable to dilute brines (i.e., geothermal, oilfield, seawater, wastewater,—which contain 0.01–0.3 mg of Li+ per L of brine), as these have more recently prospected for Li recovery. Together with lithium recycling from spent batteries, these hold the promise of delocalizing raw lithium sourcing.New extraction technologies have emerged within the past decade, including adsorption and the use of membranes. In addition to being insufficient for an effective recovery, some alternatives seem to imply a harsher environmental impact than current practices, whereas others would be disadvantageous to treat the large volumes of fluid associated with lithium extraction. Especially, electrochemical methods for Li+ recovery are (re)surging.[1] The use of Li+ insertion electrodes coupled to membranes and membrane electrolysis are notoriously thriving.[1,2] However, the first approach bears the limitation of requiring extremely thin and large area electrodes to process large brine volumes, and the second one suffers from being energy-intensive, plus current investigations show the constant addition of chemicals for pH adjustment, and produce chloride- and hypochlorite-anions rich solutions which are neither economic nor sustainable.[2] Furthermore, in membrane electrolysis swelling of the ion exchange membrane could be an issue[3] that has not been addressed in Li+ recovery studies; if excessive, this could lead to membrane deformations and ultimately to the blockage of the flow channels within the reactor. Despite the aforementioned limitations, electrochemical methods are a more sustainable and versatile option, with latent competitiveness vs. current industrial practices. Thus, ideal solutions should have the added value of circumventing the limitations of the state-of-the-art electrochemical approaches mentioned above. This aim was pursued in the present work.Gas diffusion electrodes (GDEs) are broadly used in electrochemical energy-conversion devices, such as fuel cells and metal-air batteries, as well as in electrolyzers aiming at chemical synthesis, like in the chlor-alkali industry, hydrogen peroxide production, CO2 conversions to fuels and fine chemicals, or N2 reduction to ammonia. Recently, the use of GDEs was pioneered for metal recovery in a process named gas-diffusion electrocrystallization (GDEx).[4–7] This talk will explain the underlying principles of GDEx and its successful application in the recovery of highly dilute lithium (<300 mg L-1) in synthetic brines containing up to 150 mg L-1 NaCl, as well as in real geothermal brines with Li+ concentrations below 50 mg L-1. Up to 50% of direct lithium extraction from the brine can be achieved, selectively, forming solid materials with lithium concentrations >0.5%, which are promising as a starting material for the direct conversion into battery-grade lithium hydroxide or carbonate.

First High-Power CSEM Field Test in Saudi Arabia

We conducted an initial high-power CSEM (controlled-source electromagnetic method) survey in a coastal salt-flat area in the broader area of Half Moon Bay, in the southern part of Dammam Peninsula in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. The primary purpose of this work was to verify the technology, but we were also able to detect and characterize potential economic brines in the study area. For a high-quality data acquisition, several transmitter–receiver configurations, different acquisition parameters, and passive and active EM data were collected, evaluated, processed, and interpreted to characterize the subsurface. The long-offset EM (LOTEM) and the focused-source EM (FSEM) were the optimum configurations due to the high-quality of the collected data. This is a starting point for using the CSEM method towards the O&amp;G, geothermal, CO2 sequestration, groundwater, lithium brine, and other natural resources’ exploration and exploitation in the Gulf countries.

The impacts of environmental, social and governance (ESG) issues in achieving sustainable lithium supply in the Lithium Triangle

The electrification transition will intensify the demand for lithium. The endowment in the Lithium Triangle is significant, and the expectations for the global supply are high in terms of resources and sustainability. In this paper, we investigate the impact of environmental, social and governance (ESG) challenges to the future of sustainable lithium extraction. We undertook a qualitative analysis to prioritise the risks associated with these challenges and discussed their interlinkages. We argue that a sustainable perspective for lithium extraction in the region requires continuous and informed dialogue among government, industry and community stakeholders and participatory processes that reduce the asymmetries of power and knowledge. We provide a list of urgent mitigation actions that could assist the move towards sustainability. These include the following. First is expanding our understandings of the water cycle of lithium brines in this region. This should be underpinned by baseline data and ongoing monitoring at the watershed scale, capacity building to strengthen institutions, improved regulations and data infrastructures to promote data transparency and accessibility. Second is integrating biodiversity impacts within existing mining practices and procedures (e.g. Environmental Impact Assessments — EIA). We propose the strategic implementation of the mitigation hierarchy and IFC’s Performance Standards to avoid, reduce and offset the risks of lithium extraction on ecosystem services and critically important biodiversity impacts. Third is strengthening social participatory processes that enable the local communities to become actors in decision-making and the ongoing management and monitoring of lithium projects. Fourth is establishing a framework to support a Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) process specific to lithium with a regional approach in the Lithium Triangle.

Reservas, recursos y exploración de litio en salares del norte de Chile

The discovery of lithium in the Salar de Atacama in northern Chile in 1969 laid the foundations for the development of the world’s leading lithium brine deposit. The available background on the brine deposits located in the Atacama and Maricunga salt flats indicates reserves of 10,879,000 tons of lithium, to which resources are added for 3,335,100 tons of lithium identified in 9 additional Andean and pre-Andean salt flats. The future of exploration is also auspicious considering that there is information on the presence of lithium-bearing brines in another 13 salt flats and 36 identified prospective areas that have not yet been studied. The level of lithium reserves and resources identified and the encouraging expectations for exploration place Chile as a relevant player in the development of the lithium industry worldwide.

Diagenesis and controls on reservoir quality of Lower Triassic red bed sandstones (Buntsandstein) from a marginal basin facies, southwest Germany

After decades of hydrocarbon exploration and production in the Lower Triassic Buntsandstein from the Central European Basin center, the marginal southern German Buntsandstein has gained interest as a potential lithology for geothermal applications and lithium brine extractions. For this purpose and in order to better understand reservoir quality, porosity and permeability in combination with point-counted petrographic data of sandstones from SW Germany covering the Lower, Middle, and Upper Buntsandstein are studied. Textural, mineralogical, and petrophysical data show that the eolian and fluvial sandstones represent a heterogeneous reservoir system. Permeabilities vary over six orders of magnitude from 0.001 to 515 mD, while porosities are in the range of 7.9–21.5%. Different controls on reservoir quality exist. Large grain sizes ≥0.31 mm together with total quartz contents are the major controls on reservoir quality. Additional controls on reservoir quality are exerted by authigenic phases. Since porosity loss is dominated by compaction, the influence of authigenic clay phases on reservoir quality is minor. However, illite coatings on detrital quartz efficiently inhibited syntaxial quartz overgrowth. Where illite coatings lack, syntaxial quartz overgrowths locally stabilized the granular framework and, thus, preserved primary porosity. These authigenic phases, however, represent a local control, which cannot be applied on a regional scale. Similarly, enhanced secondary porosity due to feldspar dissolution is locally restricted and minor. The comparison with other studies on the Buntsandstein shows that its reservoir system is highly heterogeneous over small and large scales and within the same stratigraphic levels. In this study, quartz-rich and authigenic clay-poor sandstones with relative large grain sizes interpreted as eolian deposits reveal the best reservoir qualities.

Refinement of brine for lithium extraction using ion concentration polarization

• The ICP process shows separation of ions based on electrophoretic mobility. • Reduction of Mg 2+ :Li + is demonstrated with standard divalent ion exchange membrane. • The technical feasibility is compared with well-established electrodialysis platforms. The surge of electric vehicle deployment in response to the global climate crisis has marked tremendous increase in the demand of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium brine has gained much attention as a critical primary lithium resource over mineral sources due to cheaper processing and greater abundance. However, reducing the Mg 2+ :Li + ratio of brines remains a challenge, as magnesium contaminates lithium precipitates. Solar evaporation ponds are traditionally employed to concentrate Li and reduce Mg content to tackle this issue, but typically require 1–2 years to process a batch of feed solution, and require much land area disturbing the local environment near brine resources. Here we present a continuous, scalable ion separation technique for reducing the Mg 2+ :Li + ratio of brine as an alternative to solar evaporation. The device utilizes ion concentration polarization to induce a locally amplified electric field. The amplified electric field separates ions into streams according to electrophoretic mobility. We demonstrate reduction of a 25:1 Mg 2+ :Li + lab brine to below 10:1 Mg 2+ :Li + , which is an acceptable lithium production purity by industrial standards. Reduction of a 60:1 Mg 2+ :Li + to ∼ 10:1 and a 100:1 Mg 2+ :Li + brine to approximately 20:1 are also demonstrated. The system suffers a high specific energy consumption (8.804 kWh/g Li + for 25:1 reduction to 9:1) due to low lithium recovery (9.9%) and microfluidic system size. However, an economic scaling analysis shows that this work is within an order of magnitude of the state-of-the-art separation technologies in the literature after various process parameters are normalized. Ultimately, this work demonstrates a potential novel process for continuous lithium extraction from brines, which is a generalizable ion separation tool utilizing differences in electrophoretic mobility.

LiFePO4 Battery Material for the Production of Lithium from Brines: Effect of Brine Composition and Benefits of Dilution.

Lithium battery materials can be advantageously used for the selective sequestration of lithium ions from natural resources, which contain other cations in high excess. However, for practical applications, this new approach for lithium production requires the battery host materials to be stable over many cycles while retaining the high lithium selectivity. Here, a nearly symmetrical cell design was employed to show that LiFePO4 shows good capacity retention with cycling in artificial lithium brines representative of brines from Chile, Bolivia and Argentina. A quantitative correlation was identified between brine viscosity and capacity degradation, and for the first time it was demonstrated that the dilution of viscous brines with water significantly enhanced capacity retention and rate capability. The electrochemical and X‐ray diffraction characterisation of the cycled electrodes also showed that the high lithium selectivity was preserved with cycling. Raman spectra of the cycled electrodes showed no signs of degradation of the carbon coating of LiFePO4, while scanning electron microscopy images showed signs of particle cracking, thus pointing towards interfacial reactions as the cause of capacity degradation.

Technology for the Recovery of Lithium from Geothermal Brines

Lithium is the principal component of high-energy-density batteries and is a critical material necessary for the economy and security of the United States. Brines from geothermal power production have been identified as a potential domestic source of lithium; however, lithium-rich geothermal brines are characterized by complex chemistry, high salinity, and high temperatures, which pose unique challenges for economic lithium extraction. The purpose of this paper is to examine and analyze direct lithium extraction technology in the context of developing sustainable lithium production from geothermal brines. In this paper, we are focused on the challenges of applying direct lithium extraction technology to geothermal brines; however, applications to other brines (such as coproduced brines from oil wells) are considered. The most technologically advanced approach for direct lithium extraction from geothermal brines is adsorption of lithium using inorganic sorbents. Other separation processes include extraction using solvents, sorption on organic resin and polymer materials, chemical precipitation, and membrane-dependent processes. The Salton Sea geothermal field in California has been identified as the most significant lithium brine resource in the US and past and present efforts to extract lithium and other minerals from Salton Sea brines were evaluated. Extraction of lithium with inorganic molecular sieve ion-exchange sorbents appears to offer the most immediate pathway for the development of economic lithium extraction and recovery from Salton Sea brines. Other promising technologies are still in early development, but may one day offer a second generation of methods for direct, selective lithium extraction. Initial studies have demonstrated that lithium extraction and recovery from geothermal brines are technically feasible, but challenges still remain in developing an economically and environmentally sustainable process at scale.

Concurrent magnesium and boron extraction from natural lithium brine and its optimization by response surface methodology

The high demand of lithium for electromobility and energy storage requires an efficient and sustainable optimization of the current extraction from natural lithium brine process. In this context, this study develops a simultaneous Mg2+ and B3+ extraction system, which could be a contribution to the elimination of precipitation stages and the generation of high purity lithium brine. This dual system composed of a dialkylphosphate ionic liquid and a 2-ethylhexanol/kerosene mixture as magnesium and boron extractors, respectively, was optimized by a mathematical and statistical method known as response surface methodology (RSM). The RSM method identified, through a small number of experiments, the interdependencies of the parameters involved in the extraction process, and calculated their optimal values to achieve the maximum extraction efficiency of Mg2+ and B3+. The optimization was performed from two approaches. The first, maximizing the extraction of Mg2+ and B3+, resulted in experimental efficiencies of 99.17% of Mg2+, 99.36% of B3+ and 23.54% of Li+; whereas the second, in which lithium co-extraction was minimized, yielded efficiencies of 83.56% Mg2+, 99.22% B3+ and 3.36% Li+, results that demonstrate the high extraction capacity of the system, as well as proving the validity of the statistical model.

Recovering water from lithium-rich brines by a fractionation process based on membrane distillation-crystallization

In recent years, lithium production has been increasing as a result of the growing market demand. Salt-lake brines are one of the main sources of raw lithium, which can be concentrated and purified by natural evaporation. This time-consuming production causes a loss of around 85–95 % of the water contained in the extracted brine. In this context, new technologies could replace the current process with the aim to improve the water management by recognizing the evaporated water as a critical resource.This study proposes a novel fractionation method, based on a membrane distillation-crystallization process, for concentrating and purifying the lithium brine while recovering fresh water. Synthetic brines containing the major components present in Li-rich brines were assessed at different temperatures, reaching a water flux higher than 3.0 kg/m2h at 50 °C. The process was continuously protracted achieving the fractionation of Na and K salts by controlling the supersaturation of the brine and crystallization. Subsequently, the observed water flux for Mg brine was 0.22 kg/m2h as a result of the water activity decline at high brine concentration (>7.0 mol/kgH2O).Moreover, thermodynamic speciation simulation supported the potentialities of this process, showing the capacity to recover around 95 % of the water contained in real brines from salt-lakes after three stages of separation.Overall, a conceptual flow-sheet of a new membrane-based fractional crystallization method was proposed for: i) the intensification of the brine concentration; ii) the recovery of water (up to 95 %); iii) the brine purification from in presence of major ions (i.e. Li, Na, K and Mg).

Novel Positively Charged Metal-Coordinated Nanofiltration Membrane for Lithium Recovery

Nanofiltration (NF) with high water flux and precise separation performance with high Li+/Mg2+ selectivity is ideal for lithium brine recovery. However, conventional polyamide-based commercial NF membranes are ineffective in lithium recovery processes due to their undesired Li+/Mg2+ selectivity. In addition, they are constrained by the water permeance selectivity trade-off, which means that a highly permeable membrane often has lower selectivity. In this study, we developed a novel nonpolyamide NF membrane based on metal-coordinated structure, which exhibits simultaneously improved water permeance and Li+/Mg2+ selectivity. Specifically, the optimized Cu-m-phenylenediamine (MPD) membrane demonstrated a high water permeance of 16.2 ± 2.7 LMH/bar and a high Li+/Mg2+ selectivity of 8.0 ± 1.0, which surpassed the trade-off of permeance selectivity. Meanwhile, the existence of copper in the Cu-MPD membrane further enhanced anti-biofouling property and the metal-coordinated nanofiltration membrane possesses a pH-responsive property. Finally, a transport model based on the Nernst-Planck equations has been developed to fit the water flux and rejection of uncharged solutes to the experiments conducted. The model had a deviation below 2% for all experiments performed and suggested an average pore radius of 1.25 nm with a porosity of 21% for the Cu-MPD membrane. Overall, our study provides an exciting approach for fabricating a nonpolyamide high-performance nanofiltration membrane in the context of lithium recovery.

Navigating the emerging lithium rush: lithium extraction from brines for clean-tech battery storage technologies

The expansion of electric vehicle technologies and renewable energy storage will increasingly depend on lithium-ion batteries. Current lithium extraction operations are far from the environmentally and socially compliant operations desired by the ‘clean-tech’ industry. However, an innovative and more compliant lithium extraction process has emerged. Several companies are actively working on scrubbing lithium from lithium-enriched brines by purifying wastewater from oil and gas operations or through standalone extraction facilities. This paper examines the legal considerations and risks associated with the development of a novel lithium brine extraction industry in Western Canada, primarily focused on Alberta as a traditional oil and gas jurisdiction. Our analysis of Alberta's subsurface regimes identifies and discusses ambiguities that the Alberta government may need to address for this emerging subsurface industry. Similarly, we identify unique contractual considerations for counsel to contemplate when advising parties involved in this new industry. We conclude that the current legal landscape in Alberta, from both a regulatory and a contractual perspective, needs further clarification in order to attract a large-scale and viable industry. Nevertheless, we emphasise that Western Canada is ripe with opportunity to commercialise on a new lithium extraction industry and take note of the increased governmental interest in the development of this emerging industry.

Analysis of a Process for Producing Battery Grade Lithium Hydroxide by Membrane Electrodialysis.

A membrane electrodialysis process was tested for obtaining battery grade lithium hydroxide from lithium brines. Currently, in the conventional procedure, a brine with Li+ 4–6 wt% is fed to a process to form lithium carbonate and further used to produce lithium hydroxide. The disadvantages of this process are its high cost due to several stage requirement and the usage of lime, causing waste generation. The main objective of this work is to demonstrate the feasibility of obtaining battery grade lithium hydroxide monohydrate, avoiding production of lithium carbonate. A laboratory cell was constructed to study electrochemical kinetics and determine energetic parameters. The effects of current density, electrode material, electrolyte concentration, temperature and cationic membrane (Nafion 115 and Nafion 117) on cell performance were determined. Tests showed that a current density of 1200 A/m2 and temperatures between 75–85 °C allow reduced specific electricity consumption (SEC) (7.25 kWh/kg LiOH). A high purity product is obtained at temperatures below 75 °C, with a Nafion 117 membrane and low electrolyte concentration. Resulting key electrochemical data would enable a pilot-scale process implementation to obtain lithium compounds.

Application and limitations of a H2TiO3 – Diatomaceous earth composite synthesized from titania slag as a selective lithium adsorbent

The lithium adsorption properties of H2TiO3 synthesized from titania slag and immobilized on diatomaceous earth was investigated. Batch adsorption studies using a LiCl buffered solution (pH = 9.5) shows a maximum adsorption capacity of 27.4 mg/g. Isotherm and kinetic studies indicate that lithium adsorption takes place heterogeneously via a chemisorption mechanism. When tested in a low-grade lithium brine (i.e., The Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA (Li+ ~ 20 mg/L)), the adsorbent composite demonstrated high selectivity towards lithium over magnesium and sodium (selectivity factor >40) with good recyclability at room temperature. However, despite its relatively high adsorption capacity in a buffered solution, the adsorption capacity and the rate of lithium adsorption drastically decreases in brine solution compared to the buffered solution due to the release of H+ ions during ion-exchange. The lithium adsorption capacity decreased with increasing temperature due to the loss of adsorption sites, which is a result of the hydrolysis of metastable H2TiO3 at higher temperatures. This decomposition of the adsorbent is a result of the destabilizing effect of H2TiO3 on DE.

Lithium and Brine Geochemistry in the Salars of the Southern Puna, Andean Plateau of Argentina

Abstract The Andean plateau is a small region of South America extending between northwest Argentina, southwest Bolivia, and northern Chile. It concentrates the largest global resources of lithium brines in its numerous salars. Of these, the giant salars in Bolivia and Chile have been relatively well studied; however, only little is known about the smaller but numerous salars in the Argentine Puna region. In this article, we present the results of the first regional-scale reconnaissance exploration of the 12 major salars situated in the southern part of the Puna plateau (24°S–26°30’S). Hydrochemical data indicate that the shallowest brines are characterized by highly variable Li concentrations, with mean Li grades ranging between 57 and 570 mg L−1, and mean Li/Mg ratios from 0.01 to 1.24. A survey of the brine chemistry of the salars across the Puna plateau, including its northern part, has revealed the absence of a geographical pattern in Li+ grade distribution. However, a comparison among mean Li+ grades, Li+/Mg2+ ratios, and the sizes of all salars allows an estimation of their Li mining potential. Specifically, the salt pan of Arizaro represents the highest potential, mainly due to its size; Antofalla-Botijuelas has a large surface and promising Li/Mg ratios for Li recovery via brine evaporation, though its elongated shape is a constraint; and Pastos Grandes, Pozuelos, and Rincón have encouraging Li grades, interesting salar sizes, and relatively easy access. Olaroz, Cauchari, and Hombre Muerto contain the highest Li+ grades in brines of the Argentine Puna and embody the most interesting perspectives of the Argentine plateau in a regional context. Salar sizes could be related to maximum Li+ grade of brines. Larger salars would then be expected to contain brines with higher Li+ grades than smaller ones, which could be considered as a useful criterion for surveys of brine-type deposits.

Hydroclimatic and geothermal controls of lithium brine deposits on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

The paper focused on the distribution characteristic, material source and ore-forming mechanism of lithium brine deposits on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, and established the lithium brine deposit model. The results showed that all lithium brine deposits are controlled by the Neotectonics, enclosed/semi-enclosed low catchment basin and hyper-arid climate conditions, and related to the Cenozoic hydrothermal activities. The ore-forming materials especially lithium element are derived from volcanic rocks, which migrated and concentrated after water-rock interaction by hydrothermal springs and atmospheric precipitation.

Estudio del proceso de evaporación en el Salar Tres Quebradas por medio de medidas in situ y datos de satélite

&lt;p&gt;The calculation of evaporation (&lt;em&gt;Ev&lt;/em&gt;) is a fundamental process on the planning of investment for nonmetallic mining in salt flats. Dispose to reliable estimates of evaporation allows to reduce one of the main uncertainties of the flow models in this type of basin. This paper focuses on the calculation of &lt;em&gt;Ev&lt;/em&gt; in the Tres Quebradas salt flat, Catamarca (Argentina), applying Priestley-Taylor model whit satellite data. Study area comprises the Tres Quebradas and Verde lagoons, and a central evaporite zone. Satellite data (CERES and OLI-LandSat 8), meteorological information, brine density measurements, evaporation measurements, and spectral signatures to calculations were used. The lagoons evaporation was estimated and by means of a Class A evaporation pan validated. The evaporation control in evaporite zones also was studied using a phreatic level function. &lt;em&gt;Ev&lt;/em&gt; values of 1302 mm year&lt;sup&gt;–1&lt;/sup&gt; and 1249 mm year&lt;sup&gt;–1&lt;/sup&gt; for the Tres Quebradas and Verde lagoons were obtained, respectively, similar to Class A evaporation pan values measured. In the case of evaporite zones, an average annual value of 152 mm year&lt;sup&gt;–1&lt;/sup&gt; was estimated, regulated by the phreatic level. In summary, an average annual of system water loss by evaporation of 1.31±0.32 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;–1&lt;/sup&gt; was obtained, where more than 80% corresponds to the Tres Quebradas and Verde lagoons, and the rest to the central evaporite zone. The results achieved are consistent and will be used as input data in the numerical flow modeling to the estimation of the lithium brine reserve of the salt flats.&lt;/p&gt;

Sources and a proposal for comprehensive exploitation of lithium brine deposits in the Qaidam Basin on the northern Tibetan Plateau, China: Evidence from Li isotopes

A thorough understanding of the origin and distribution of lithium brine deposits is the foundation for lithium resource exploration, development and utilization. The lithium isotope system, a sensitive geochemical tracer, can be used to track a wide range of geological processes and sources. This study investigates major cations, [Li], and δ7Li of samples (brine lakes, intercrystalline brines, river waters, rain, hot spring waters, spring waters and rocks) from the Qaidam Basin on the northern Tibetan Plateau, China. [Li] values vary from less than 0.01 mg L−1 to ~408.83 mg L−1. There are significant differences in [Li] for different sample types. spring water (rain) < river samples < brine lakes < intercrystalline brines. The δ7Li values of samples display as significant variations as [Li], ranging from 4.33‰ to +40.66‰. There are also significant differences in δ7Li for different sample types. The δ7Li values of spring water and river waters are relatively low and the values are from 4.33‰ to 18.37‰. However, intercrystalline brines and saline lakes have the higher values, and the heaviest δ7Li (+40.66‰) occurs in Chaka Lake. The δ7Li values in brine lakes in the Qaidam Basin show obvious regional distributions, which are also consistent with the structural characteristics of the Qaidam Basin. The possible sources of lithium in the brine lakes of the Qaidam Basin result from multiple mixing of redissolved Li from earlier salt sediments, deep groundwater via fractures (oil field brines, hot springs, etc.), low-temperature weathering processes of Li-rich rock, and freshwater. The results suggest that δ7Li should be a powerful tracer to unravel the sources of Li and reconstruct its accumulation processes in brine lakes. This study provides important theoretical and practical guidance for the effective protection of precious lithium brine deposits and sustainable lithium resource exploration.

Stable and Radioisotope Systematics Reveal Fossil Water as Fundamental Characteristic of Arid Orogenic‐Scale Groundwater Systems

AbstractIn arid and semiarid regions, persistent hydrological imbalances illuminate the considerable gaps in our spatiotemporal understanding of fundamental catchment‐scale governing mechanisms. The Salar de Atacama basin is the most extreme example of groundwater‐dominated continental basins and therefore is an ideal place to probe these unresolved questions. Geochemical and hydrophysical observations indicate that groundwaters discharging into the basin reflect a large regional system integrated over 102–104 year timescales. The groundwater here, as in other arid regions, is a critical freshwater resource subject to substantial demand from competing interests, particularly as development of its world‐class lithium brine deposit expands. Utilizing a uniquely large and comprehensive set of H and O isotopes in water, we demonstrate that much of the presumed recharge area on the Altiplano‐Puna plateau exhibits isotopic signatures quite distinct from waters presently discharging within the endorheic Salar de Atacama watershed. δ18O values of predicted inflow source waters are 3.6‰ to 5.6‰ higher than modern plateau waters, and 3H data from 87 discrete samples indicate that nearly all of this inflow is composed of premodern recharge (i.e., fossil water). Under plausible conditions, these distinctions cannot be explained solely by natural variability in modern meteoric inputs or by steady state groundwater flow. We present a conceptual model revealing the extensive influence of transient draining of fossil groundwater storage augmented by regional interbasin flow from the Andes. Our analysis provides robust constraints on fundamental mechanisms governing this arid continental groundwater system and a framework within which to address persistent uncertainties in similar systems worldwide.