Coconut Shell Liquid Smoke Research Articles

Preparation and characterization of coconut shell liquid smoke and the properties of preserving tofu

Coconut shell waste can generate environmental problems if left without treatment, as it contains lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose compounds, which pyrolyze to produce liquid smoke, charcoal, and tar. This study aims to prepare and characterize liquid smoke using several parameters, including the chemical content preserving tofu and the hedonic test of consumer preferences. The dried coconut shell (3000 g) was pyrolyzed at 300 °C for 5 h. Liquid smoke (grade 3) was purified by distillation (grade 2) and filtered with activated charcoal to produce grade 1 liquid smoke. The liquid smoke properties were characterized as yield, pH, phenol, and moisture, while the chemical components were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). For the commercial and coconut shell liquid smoke (grade 1) used in this study, the application was aimed at preserving the tofu for three days. Panelists observed the aroma, the texture, and the appearance compared to the control. Ten panelists performed the hedonic test of fried preserved tofu. The organoleptic aspects included taste, texture, aroma, and color. The liquid smoke obtained from coconut shell pyrolysis was red-brown, with a yield of 52.75%, pH 0.5 (grade 3), pH 1.7 (grade 2), and pH 2.3, with a total phenol of 2.479 (grade 1). The GC-MS results exhibited three essential chemical compounds, namely phenol, methoxy phenol, and hydroxyphenyl phosphonic acid, influencing the preservation. The liquid smoke solution extended the shelf life of tofu, especially at a concentration of 1.5 (% v/v), so the water content decreased. The average panelist responded “good” on the hedonic test on all of the tofu treatments compared to the control.

Antibacterial properties of edible coatings from chitosan and young coconut shell liquid smoke

Abstract Liquid smoke-based edible coatings have garnered considerable attention in the food processing and post-harvest industry due to their environmentally friendly attributes and their ability to extend the shelf life of perishable goods. This study investigates the antimicrobial efficacy of edible coatings formulated using chitosan and young coconut shell liquid smoke against both gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium) and gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus). The liquid smoke was produced via the pyrolysis of young coconut shells at temperatures of 300 (T1), 340 (T2), 380 (T3) and 420ºC (T4). The edible coatings were prepared by blending 2% (v/w) liquid smoke with varying chitosan concentrations of 0.5 % (Ch 0.5), 1% (Ch 1) and 1.5% (Ch 1.5). Antibacterial activity assessments were conducted using the disc diffusion method (Kirby Bauer). The findings reveal that the antibacterial efficacy of the edible coatings against each bacterial strain is influenced by both the pyrolysis temperature and the concentration of chitosan employed. Liquid smoke derived from T4 pyrolysis exhibited the highest inhibitory potential, except for Bacillus subtilis. Notably, the most pronounced antimicrobial activity against Salmonella typhimurium was observed with the T4Ch1.5 edible coating. Specifically, at T4Ch1.5, the inhibitory zones for Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus were measured at 7.65 mm, 8.30 mm, 7.55 mm, and 7.23 mm, respectively. The results underscore the promise of edible coatings comprising a combination of chitosan and young coconut shell liquid smoke as potential candidates for preserving food and agricultural products, offering both protection and antibacterial properties.

Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of coconut-shell liquid smoke to maintain the texture of fresh meat

This research focused on the evaluation of raw broiler chicken meat texture and pathogenic antibacterial effect under the treatment of grade 2 coconut-shell liquid smoke (CSLS) as a food preservative. Compound identification of grade 2 CSLS was conducted using the GC-MS method. The main chemical compounds of CSLS were polyunsaturated fatty acid derivates, fatty acid and phenol. The evaluation of texture was conducted on raw broiler chicken meat under the treatment of grade 2 CSLS during storage at 25 ℃ for 7 days. The effect of antibacterial activity of grade 2 CSLS with different concentration (i.e., 5%, 25%, 50%, and 75%) were tested using Gram-positive bacteria on several pathogenic bacteria such as L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, P. Aeruginosa, and E. coli. The results indicated that grade 2 CSLS influenced the inhibited zone of L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, P. Aeruginosa, and E. coli respectively with linear correlation. The optimal concentration of grade 2 CSLS resulted in a concentration of 50%, which was the most optimal against L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, P. Aeruginosa, and E. coli as pathogenic bacteria strains.

In vitro potential control of white root fungus in nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) based on botanical fungicide of coconut shell liquid smoke

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) is spice plant which has an important position as a source of essential oils. An important problem in nutmeg cultivation is white root disease which can reduce nutmeg production. Until now, white root disease is still a problem in nutmeg plantations in South Aceh district. One of the solution that can be explored as an environmentally friendly control measure is to use the botanical fungicide coconut shell liquid smoke. This research aims to determine the potential of coconut shell liquid smoke in controlling white root fungus in vitro. The research was carried out in the Plant Protection Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Teuku Umar University. The research design used was a non-factorial Completely Randomized Design (CRD) consisting of nine levels of liquid smoke concentration treatment; control 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%. Each treatment involved three replications. Data analysis was carried out using analysis of variance and Tukey's least significant difference (HSD) test.The research stages carried out consisted of producing coconut shell liquid smoke, isolating white root fungus from the roots of infected nutmeg plants and potential assay of liquid smoke in inhibiting the growth of white root fungus. In vitro bioassay result showed that liquid smoke treatment 3% was the best treatment because it was the lowest concentration causing total inhibition of the growth of white root fungus.

Acute Dermal Toxicity of Liquid Smoke (Cocos nucifera L.) Grade 1

Liquid smoke, a product from coconut shell waste, is a food preservative and antimicrobial substitute. It is produced through pyrolysis at 400-600°C, producing solid, liquid, and gas products. Toxicity studies need to be conducted to test the safety of medicinal products. This is because medicinal products that meet the requirements are those that have proven their efficacy and safety. Liquid smoke, especially grade 1, has not been studied further regarding its safety. This study aimed to determine the acute toxicity potential of grade 1 coconut shell liquid smoke. The experimental method involved collecting and processing samples, making liquid smoke, purifying them, and testing the effects of acute dermal toxicity. Results showed mild damage to liver and kidney organs, with microscopic liver tissue damage and kidney tissue damage. Keywords: Cocos nucifera L., liquid smoke, toxicity, acute, subchronic

Antimicrobial Assessment of Hand Sanitizers Formulated from Neem Leaf Extract (Azadirachta indica) and Coconut Shell Liquid Smoke

Abstract The widespread use of alcohol/ethanol-based hand sanitizers has raised concerns due to the concurrent issues of skin irritation, allergies, childhood poisoning risks, and the potential for bacterial resistance to antibiotics, which may disrupt the human digestive system. This study explores the potential of Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica) and liquid smoke as natural alternatives to alcohol-based antiseptics. The objective is to assess the antimicrobial efficacy of hand sanitizers containing Neem leaf extract and coconut shell liquid smoke against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Hand sanitizers were prepared by mixing 4g of Neem leaf extract with varying quantities of coconut shell liquid smoke (labeled as A1, A2, A3, A4, and A5, corresponding to 0g, 1g, 3g, 5g, and 7g, respectively). distilled water was then added until the total volume reached 100 ml. The solution was then stabilized with 0.5g of Carboxyl Methyl Cellulose (CMC) and 10g of glycerin. Results indicate that formulations A1, A2, A3, and A5 exhibit moderate inhibitory activity against Escherichia coli, with inhibition zone diameters of 6.02 mm, 8.17 mm, 9.67 mm, and 9.11 mm, respectively. Notably, formulation A4 displays strong inhibitory activity (11.15 mm). For Salmonella typhimurium, formulations A4 and A5 demonstrate very strong antimicrobial properties with inhibition zones measuring 11.68 mm and 12.59 mm, respectively. These findings suggest that hand sanitizers comprising Neem leaf extract and liquid smoke possess the potential as environmentally friendly, natural antiseptics.

Antibacterial Activity by Diffusion and Dilution Methods of Liquid Smoke Cocos nucifera L.

Introduction: Liquid smoke is a product that obtained industrially from coconut shell through pyrolysis process at 400°C for 2,5 hours and redestillation to obtain grade 1 liquid smoke. Coconut shell liquid smoke contains chemical compounds, namely phenol, which has been researched to act as a disinfectant that has broad spectrum antibacterial activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Method: This study aims to determine the potential of cocos nucifera L. liquid smoke as an antibacterial against Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria using diffusion and dilution methods. The concentrations used were 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%. As positive control was used Tetracycline 25 ppm. Results: Liquid smoke has the potential to inhibit the growth of both bacteria. The effective concentration to inhibit the growth of S. aureus at 40% concentration and MRSA at 80% concentration. The MIC value of liquid smoke against S. aureus is 0,78%, while on MRSA 3,12%. The MBC of S. aureus and MRSA bacteria at concentrations 1,56% and 6,25%. Staphylococcus aureus has higher sensitivity to Cocos nucifera L. grade 1 liquid smoke than MRSA bacteria. Conclusion: Cocos nucifera L. liquid smoke has antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA at effective concentrations of 40% and 80%. The MIC value of S. aureus is 0,78%, while MRSA is 3,12%. The MBC of S. aureus and MRSA bacteria at concentrations 1,56% and 6,25%. Keywords: antibacterial, liquid smoke, phenol, Cocos nucifera L.

Analysis of total flavonoid and antioxidant activity of coconut shell liquid smoke (Cocos nucifera L.) as an antibacterial

Background: Coconut shell is often used for cooking or treated as waste. Liquid smoke is a by-product of coconut shell processing, which results from condensation of combustion steam. It is divided into grades one, two, and three based on the characteristics and utilisation. It contains phenolic, carbonyl acids and other compounds which act as antioxidants, antibacterials, and antifungals. Objective: To determine the total content of flavonoids, antioxidants and antibacterial activity in liquid smoke. Method: Liquid smoke was produced by a pyrolysator and distilled to produce grades one, two and three. It was then tested for antibacterial activity using the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) method against S. aureus and E. coli. The AlCl3 reagent and DPPH method were used to determine the total flavonoid and antioxidant levels, respectively. Results: The MIC of grade one, two, and three coconut shell liquid smoke was 10%; 10%; 5% against S. aureus; and 10%, 5%, and 5% against E. coli. The total flavonoid yields from grades one, two and three were 0.0041, 0.0174, and 0.2741 mg QE/ml, respectively. Test results for antioxidant grades with IC50 values were 142.82, 121.64, and 90.80 µg/mL. Conclusion: Coconut shell liquid smoke has antibacterial activity, contains a certain amount of flavonoids, and also possesses antioxidant activity.

The effect of liquid smoke (Cocos nucifera) in controlling acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease in Litopenaeus vannamei

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is found in coastal environments throughout the world and is a major pathogen that causes Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND) with mass mortalities in Pacific whiteleg shrimp (Penaues vannamei). The extract of coconut shell liquid smoke (Cocos nucifera) was tested for antibacterial effect against AHPND in vitro. It was further evaluated for its potential efficacy in preventing AHPND in vannamei shrimp in vivo. The water in this study has been tested and positive for Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Two experimental diets were obtained by adding 0.5% and 1% liquid smoke to a commercial shrimp diet. The dietary supplementation with liquid smoke significantly enhanced shrimp growth performance during 90 days of rearing. A liquid concentration of 0.5% showed a higher growth performance (17.56 gr) than a 1% concentration (14.4 gr). Liquid smoke added to the shrimp fed partially entered the shrimp’s digestive system, and some would dissolve into the water. This water-soluble bioactive is thought to reduce the concentration of V. parahaemolyticus in waters. This was proven by the fact that no shrimp were infected with V. parahaemolyticus during the 90-day rearing.

Characterization of Distillation and Redistillation Product of Coconut Shell Liquid Smoke at Various Temperatures

This study investigates the impact of distillation temperature on phenol content in coconut shell liquid smoke, a product derived from pyrolysis and subsequent condensation processes. Liquid smoke, renowned for its versatile applications including preservation, antioxidation, antiseptic, and antibacterial properties, necessitates distillation for both quality enhancement and safety. The research comprises a two-stage distillation, featuring 11 temperature variations (100-150°C) in the first stage and 9 variations (75-155°C) in the second stage. Characterization involves pH assessment and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis to identify chemical components. The pH range in the initial distillation stage spans 1.18-1.30, and the second stage ranges from 1.11-1.39. GC-MS analysis of raw coconut shell liquid smoke reveals 25 components, including phenol, furan, ketone, acid, alcohol, benzenediol and derivatives, alkyl aryl ether, deoxycytidine, and silicone grease. GC-MS evaluation is conducted on products of the first stage at 125 and 135°C, and the second stage products at 145 and 155°C. In the first distillation stage, liquid smoke contains phenol and assorted compounds. Conversely, the second stage yields purer phenol compounds. The findings suggest potential applications of the redistillation product as raw material in food preservation, antiseptics, and insecticides.

Karakteristik Kimia Dan Organoleptik Asap Cair Tempurung Kelapa Dalam Menurunkan Cemaran Logam Timbal (Pb) Pada Ikan Cakalang (Katsuwonus pelamis)

This research aims to determine the chemical characteristics of coconut shell liquid smoke and analyze the effectiveness of using liquid smoke in reducing Pb metal contamination in skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus Pelamis). Grade 2 liquid smoke from coconut shells is produced by the Pulubala IKM center through the stages of pyrolysis and distillation. This study employs a completely randomized design (CRD) with two replications. To determine the chemical characteristics of the liquid smoke, the analyzed methods include pH measurement, phenol content, total acidity, protein content, organoleptic value, and the chelating power of heavy metal Pb with variations in the concentration of liquid smoke test solutions AC (undiluted liquid smoke), AC2, AC4, AC6, and AC10 (liquid smoke with the addition of distilled water at 2%, 4%, 6%, and 10%). The results show that the best treatment is obtained from coconut shell liquid smoke with AC concentration (undiluted liquid smoke) having the best characteristics, namely a pH value of 4, phenol content of 1.6469%, total acidity of 14.94 mg/mL, protein content of 0.6083%, and a chelating power for heavy metal Pb of 97.32%. The results of the organoleptic test indicate that overall, the highest score was obtained with a neutral value at the concentration of AC2 (liquid smoke with the addition of 2% distilled water).

Exploring the Molecular Interactions between Volatile Compounds in Coconut Shell Liquid Smoke and Human Bitter Taste TAS2R46 Based on the Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics

Exploring the Molecular Interactions between Volatile Compounds in Coconut Shell Liquid Smoke and Human Bitter Taste TAS2R46 Based on the Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics

Quality characteristics and amino acid profile and fatty acid profile of smoked catfish treated using coconut shell liquid smoke

Smoked catfish is one of the processed fish products that is often found in various regions in Indonesia. Smoking method with liquid smoke can be alternative as a substitute for traditional smoking so that the resulting product has good quality. This study aimed to evaluate changes in the quality and amino acid profile of catfish processed using liquid smoke. Fish were immersed in liquid smoke with a concentration of 5%. Parameters analyzed in this study included levels of proximate, total bacteria, amino acid profile and fatty acid profile. The results showed that the use of liquid smoke had a significant effect (p<0.05) on the composition of proximate, total bacteria, amino acids profile, and fatty acid profile. Fresh and smoked catfish have a complete amino acid content. The dominant essential amino acids lysine and leucine were 25,738.98 mg/kg and 27,977.04 mg/kg, respectively. The highest fatty acid profile in fresh and smoked catfish were unsaturated fatty acids at 4.11 mg/kg and 4.33 mg/kg, respectively. Catfish processed by smoking liquid smoke changes in characteristics including proximate composition, amino acid profile, and fatty acid profile. The application of liquid smoke on smoked catfish also can reduced the total bacteria values.

Utilization of Coconut Shell Liquid Smoke on Quail Performance at Grower Period

Antioxidants from coconut shell liquid smoke can overcome oxidative stress in quail. This study aims to analyze the effect of coconut shell liquid smoke (ACTK) on the performance of quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) during the grower period. The research method used a completely randomized designconsisting of 5 treatment levels with 3 replications, namely P0 (control), P1 (0.25 mL/L ACTK), P2 (0.50 mL/L ACTK), P3 (0.75 mL/L ACTK) and P4 (1 mL/L ACTK). Variables measured included initial body weight, final body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, water intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR),morbidity, mortality, and income over feed quail cost (IOFQC). The results showed that giving ACTK had no significant effect (P>0.05) on feed intake, water intake, and body weight gain. The morbidity and mortality rates in this study were 0%. The best FCR value was obtained at P4 (4.28). The highest IOFQC value was at P4 (Rp 1.578,92). This study concludes that giving coconut shell liquid smoke to female quails during the grower period through drinking water had no significant effect on feed intake, water intake, and body weight gain. A dose of 1 mL/L of ACTK produced the best FCR and IOFQC values.

Pengujian Asap Cair Tempurung Kelapa Dalam Mengendalikan Patogen Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penyebab Penyakit Antraknosa Pada Cabai (Capsicum annum L.)

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a type of pathogen that causes anthracnose. This disease is classified as a major disease in chili plants which can cause great losses. Liquid smoke contains antimicrobial compounds such as phenols and acids which effectively kill and inhibit pathogenic fungi. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of coconut shell liquid smoke in controlling Colletotrichum gloeosporioides which causes anthracnose disease in chili plants. The variables in this study included the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the fungi, the diameter of the colony and the effectiveness of the inhibition. This study used liquid smoke types A3 (grade 3 liquid smoke self-made) A1 (grade 1 liquid smoke sold commercially) and A2 (grade 2 liquid smoke sold commercially) with different dose levels, namely, D1 (0.5 ml ), D2 (1 ml) and D3 (1.5 ml). The results of this study showed that coconut shell of A3 was effective in controlling C. gloeosporioides at treatment dose of 1 ml for each type of liquid smoke with an inhibition percentage 90%.

Physico-chemical and sensory quality of Pekin duck jerky sonicated with coconut shell liquid smoke and stored for different periods

This study aimed to determine the effect of adding sonicated coconut shell liquid smoke to pekin duck jerky with different storage times at room temperature and vacuum packed. Ground duck jerky is made from Pekin duck meat (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) soaked in coconut shell liquid smoke (CSLS) which has been sonicated for 20 minutes and seasoned with spices such as garlic, galangal, coriander, tamarind, salt, and coconut sugar. A laboratory experiment was done using a completely randomized design (CRD) consisting of 5 treatments (control: 0 day storage period, T1: 7 days, T2: 14 days, T3: 21 days, and T4: 28 days) and 4 replications. The results showed that the addition of sonicated CSLS with differences in the shelf life of pekin ground duck jerky had a significant effect (P<0.01) on pH, texture, color L, a*, b*, Aw, water content, fat, carbohydrates by difference, thiobarbituric acid (TBA), and iodine number. Had a significant effect (P<0.05) on ash content, and had no significant effect on Water Holding Capacity (WHC), protein content, and organoleptic quality. It was concluded that storing ground duck jerky for 14 days at room temperature and vacuum packed did not show any damage to pH, water activity, water content, fat, protein, TBA and iodine number, and did not occur rancidity.

Microbial Analysis of Chicken “Urutan” Traditional Food With Different Smoke Processes

The chicken sequence is a processed meat product that is processed by making a complete Balinese meat, fat, and seasoning mixture and then put into a sleeve. This study aimed to investigate the impact of varying concentrations of coconut shell liquid smoke on the sequence features of chickens. The method used in this study is the descriptive analysis of microbial growth observations. The results showed that the use of coconut shell liquid smoke with a concentration of 4% could maintain chicken “urutan” for up to 20 days of storage at low temperatures (5+1 oC) with total microbial characteristics of 2.08 x 107 CFU/g, Escherichia coli < 103 CFU/g and Yeast mold 0 CFU/g (meet the requirements SNI 01-3820-2015)

Application of coconut shell liquid smoke on dried skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) quality

Liquid smoke is produced from incomplete combustion, contains various compounds with functional properties that can provide aroma, taste, and color. Liquid smoke can be used as a preservative because it contains phenols and acids as anti-bacterial and antioxidant. Application of liquid smoke as a preservative can be done in the drying process using an oven. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the use of liquid smoke on the quality and organoleptic of dried skipjack tuna. The use of liquid smoke in the study was 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% consisting of 3 replications. Using a completely randomized design (CRD) and the smallest real test (BNJ). Parameters observed include water content, protein content, ash content and organoleptic test consisting of 25 panellists. The results showed that the lowest water content and the highest protein were found in the A2 treatment (use of liquid smoke 1%) at 47.7% and 50.71%, respectively. The highest ash content was found in treatment A1 (0.5% liquid smoke) at 4.56%. While the highest overall organoleptic assessment of color, taste, texture and aroma were the dried Skipjack Tuna with 1,5% liquid smoke with a score of 4.4.

Potensi Asap Cair Tempurung Kelapa Sebagai Antijamur Fusarium Foetens, Fusarium Moniliforme, Dan Colletotrichum Capsici

Fusarium and Colletotrichum are pathogenic fungi that attack potato and chili plants. Farmers often use synthetic fungicides to control the disease, while the continuous use of synthetic fungicides can cause negative impact to environment. This study aimed to test the effectiveness of plant disease control by using coconut shell liquid smoke. Inluded rejuvenation of isolates, characterization of tested isolates, and liquid smoke antifungal tests using the well diffusion method, and data analysis. Five formula concentrations were applied namely 0% (negative control), 10%, 20%, and 30% concentration, and antracol as positive control. The measurement of inhibition (mm) was carried out after 7 days of incubation. The result of in vitro effectiveness test showed that the liquid smoke had the ability to inhibit the growth of pathogenic fungi Fusarium foetens, F. moniliforme, and Colletotrichum capsici with the best concentration of 30%.

Effect of Duck Meat Maceration in Coconut Shell Liquid Smoke on the Quality of Duck Meat Sausage

This study aims to determine the effect of maceration of coconut shell liquid smoke in increasing the preference value of panelists and the quality of duck meat sausages both physically and chemically. This study was conducted in January 2023 at the Meat Processing Laboratory, Animal Product Technology Section, Faculty of Animal Science, Brawijaya University. The material used was duck meat sausage. This study used an experimental method with a completely randomized design consisting of 5 treatments and 4 replications. The results of the analysis showed that maceration of coconut shell liquid smoke produced no significant effect (P>0.05) on carbohydrates, protein content, ash content, fat content, moisture content, cooking loss, pH, and tenderness but had a very significant effect (P< 0.01) on the value of water holding capacity and organoleptic value. From this study, it could be inferred that maceration of coconut shell liquid smoke could help in reducing the value of cooking loss, moisture content, fat content, carbohydrates, and pH as well as increase the value of ash content, protein content, and water holding capacity.