Adoption Of Liquefied Petroleum Gas Research Articles

Fuel Choices during Natural Shocks: Evidence from Nepal

The adoption and use of clean cooking energy is a global and national priority; however, the household energy landscape of Nepal continues to rely heavily on biomass fuels like firewood, cow dung, and charcoal. Natural shocks can disrupt the utilization of relatively cleaner energy sources like biogas and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This study examines the impact of natural shocks on the adoption and usage of clean cooking fuels focusing on LPG. Using data from the third wave of the Household Risk and Vulnerability Survey 2018, logistic regression is employed to analyze both the likelihood of LPG adoption and household expenditure on LPG under conditions of natural shocks. The findings reveal that households experiencing natural shocks are 5 percent less on average likely to adopt biogas or LPG. Furthermore, household expenditure on LPG decreases by 4.43 percent relative to cooking fuel expenses particularly for firewood by the households experiencing natural shocks. This reduction highlights a decline in the intensity of clean energy use among households concurrently using LPG and firewood. These results underscore the negative effects of natural shocks on the transition to clean cooking fuels posing challenges to achieving sustainable adoption of clean energy solutions.

Health perceptions of smart meter liquefied petroleum gas users in Nairobi's Informal Settlement

Introduction : Household air pollution (HAP) from cooking with polluting fuels increases the risk of developing respiratory diseases. The use of a smart-meter liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); Pay-as-you-go (PAYG) model that eliminates cost barriers may increase the use of LPG, reduce HAP exposure, and lower the burden of respiratory diseases. Lack of awareness of the effects of HAP is a barrier to the exclusive use of LPG. This cross-sectional study examined smart meter users' awareness of air quality and perception of health risks associated with HAP among PAYG customers in Mukuru informal settlement, Nairobi Kenya.
 Materials and Methods : The study targeted household customers who have been cooking with PAYG LPG for at least two years. Surveys (n=330) and focus group discussions (FGDs) (n=32) participants were selected using multistage and purposive sampling techniques respectively. Quantitative and qualitative data were descriptively and thematically analyzed using STATA and NVIVO respectively.
 Results : The majority, who cooked with no separate kitchen room 147(60%) were worried about kitchen smoke (p-value=0.038). Also, 129(65%) of those who used smart meter LPG with other polluting fuels (p-value =0.021), and most 79(63%) who had experienced respiratory symptoms were concerned about kitchen smoke (p-value<0.05). Results further revealed participants' overall low awareness of indoor/outdoor pollution and little concern about respiratory health risks associated with HAP, due to a focus on more immediate issues, like; food security. The motivation to use LPG was more linked to economic considerations than health benefits.
 Conclusion/Recommendation : Results highlighted the potential for the smart-meter LPG (PAYG) model for exclusive adoption of LPG especially in the informal settlement and recommended the need to create awareness of the negative effects of HAP.

The impact of an improvement in the quality and reliability of rural residential electricity supply on clean cooking fuel adoption: Evidence from six energy poor Indian states

We present the first evidence of the causal effect of the quality and reliability of residential electricity supply on clean cooking fuel adoption and use in rural areas of six energy poor Indian states using household-level panel data from 2015 and 2018. Quality and reliability of electricity are measured using the number of hours of electricity supply in a day, the number of days of low voltage and the number of complete power outage days experienced in a month. We used the village-level variation in the coverage of a nationwide government program, (i.e., the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY)), that aimed to improve the quality and reliability of rural residential electricity supply, as an instrument. Our results show a positive effect of an improvement in the quality and reliability of electricity on liquefied petroleum gas adoption and use; and disadoption of traditional cooking fuel. The effects were significant for both poor and non-poor, and lower-caste households’ transition to clean cooking fuel. We find that the improvements in economic wellbeing, adoption of time-saving technologies, information access, and energy-efficient technology adoption played important mediating roles. These findings, for the first time, reveal the complementary role of electricity quality and reliability improvement with the adoption of clean energy sources, and thus supporting the achievement of important developmental outcomes. The findings thus underscore the need to invest in seamless and reliable electricity as a pathway to achieve the target of universal access to clean cooking fuels by 2030.

Analyzing the safety implications of the upsurge in domestic usage of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in Nigeria

The rapid rise in domestic Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) usage in Nigeria signifies a transformative shift towards cleaner energy. This abstract encapsulates a thorough analysis delving into the safety implications linked to this transition. Through meticulous exploration of LPG usage, safety practices, regulations, and stakeholder perspectives, the study aims to illuminate multifaceted safety dimensions in Nigeria. Employing mixed methods, including surveys and interviews, the research offers a holistic view of LPG safety dynamics. Quantitative data of 200 households across the six geo-political zones indicates increasing LPG adoption, highlighting gaps in safety awareness and compliance. Qualitative insights shed light on challenges faced by users, experts, and regulators, providing a nuanced outlook on safety concerns and potential solutions. Key findings underscore the role of safety awareness in shaping user practices and the need for robust regulations for consistent safety enforcement. Stakeholder input emphasizes collaboration against counterfeit equipment and standardized safety training. Recommendations include targeted awareness campaigns, stronger regulations, and industry-user partnerships to bolster LPG safety. The research holds far-reaching implications for policies, industry practices, and public engagement. Amid Nigeria's pursuit of sustainable energy solutions, addressing safety implications of surging LPG usage becomes crucial. This abstract offers a glimpse into a comprehensive exploration aiming to contribute to a safer LPG landscape, harnessing cleaner energy benefits while prioritizing Nigerian households' well-being.

Did COVID-19 Change the Availability and Use of Clean Energy for Cooking? Evidence From Ghana.

A major part of Ghana's current household energy policy is focused on using a branded cylinder recirculation model (BCRM) to promote the safe use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) for primary cooking. The implementation of the BCRM is expected to increase LPG adoption by households to the announced policy goal of 50% of the population by 2030. We investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the implementation of the BCRM, availability, and household use of cleaner fuels. This was assessed using existing data on clean fuel use prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Additional data was collected using questionnaire-based household surveys and qualitative interviews. It was found that the expansion of BCRM was significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Planning activities such as baseline data collection and stakeholder engagement were delayed due to the COVID-19 restrictions. Changes in household incomes during the pandemic had the biggest percentage effect on household choice of cooking fuel, causing a regression in some cases, to polluting fuel use. This study provides insights that could be valuable in future understanding of the interactions between pandemic control measures and economic disruptions that may affect household energy choices for cooking.

Patterns of fuel use, cooking practices and factors associated with the use of LPG for cooking in peri-urban Cameroon

Background/Aim: Over three billion people, mostly living in low and middle income countries (LMICs), are exposed to household air pollution from reliance on polluting fuels (e.g. wood, charcoal). There is a dearth of information on barriers to adoption and sustained use of clean cooking fuels, (e.g. liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)) in remote locations in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods: A cross-sectional demographic and fuel use survey was completed by approximately 1500 household cooks from peri-urban Mbalmayo in Central Cameroon. Stratified random sampling was conducted to identify approximately 200 clean (LPG) and 200 polluting (e.g. wood) cooking fuel users who completed in-depth surveys on individual and household characteristics that were potentially associated with cooking behavior and fuel choice. Results: Among households using solid fuels (n=196), the main reported barrier to LPG adoption included the initial cost of LPG equipment (n=87; 59%). Concerns over LPG safety were a significant concern in both users and non-users of LPG (n=366; 83.6% perceived LPG to be dangerous). Decision making over choice of cooking fuel was approximately equally split between the main cook (typically women) and the head of household (usually men); men were in charge of decision making regarding cooking fuel adoption among 41.4% (n=121) LPG users and 56.2% (n=82) of biomass users. Stacking was universal (100%) amongst LPG users, with 70% LPG use. Free secondary fuel and a distance 20-30minutes from retail point reduced LPG use by 20% and 10% respectively. Household head unemployed (O.R 2,057, p-value .000), No formal education (O.R 15.200,p-value .006), and Cost (O.R 2.489, p-value 0.000) were all associated with the non-adoption of LPG. Conclusions: Addressing safety concerns through education, and financially supporting households (e.g. through microfinance) will considerably scale LPG adoption in peri-urban Cameroon. Policies to facilitate LPG adoption should be targeted to both genders. Key words: LPG, clean cooking, adoption

Determinants of clean cooking fuels utilization in three peri-urban communities in Ghana: key lessons to inform national policy

Use of polluting fuels has negative effect on human health and the environment. Use of clean cooking fuels (liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) can address this burden but in Ghana adoption is low with accessibility, convenience and safety concerns being potential barriers to LPG use. In order to address these issues, the Ghanaian government launched a new LPG distribution model through cylinder recirculation in 2019 on a pilot basis As part of the CLEAN-Air (Africa) project, we collaborated with National Petroleum Authority implementing the CRM to conduct face-to-face surveys of randomly selected households on household cooking fuels preferences and use in three peri-urban CRM pilot communities in Ghana. To analyse determinants of adoption and sustained use of LPG for cooking, individual, household and wider community characteristics were entered as covariates into logistic regression models as potential predictors. A total of 5,008 respondents completed the questionnaires across the three communities (Obuasi; 1,987 (40.0%), Kwaebibirem; 1,731 (34.9%) and Hohoe; 1,248 (25.1%)). A total of 48.6% (Obuasi (50.1%); Kwaebibirem (44.4%); Hohoe (52.2%)) households reported currently using LPG as the main cooking fuel. Being head of the household, increased household size, home ownership, an indoor cooking area, increased educational status and an increased number of LPG burners were associated with household’s choice of using LPG as a primary fuel. Households using an LPG stove with three or more-burners, were 68% [OR:1.68 (95%CI: 1.32, 2.14), 001] more likely to use LPG as a primary fuel than those using a single burner on top of the cylinder. Given the importance of the CRM, understanding household level characteristics for adoption are important. Better education and awareness raising of benefits will be important in scaling adoption of LPG as a clean fuel for cooking at the household level. Keywords: clean cooking fuels, LPG, Cylinder Recirculation Model, primary fuel use

Patterns of fuel use, cooking practices and factors associated with the non use of liquefied petroleum gas for cooking in peri-urban Cameroon

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Over three billion people, mostly living in low and middle income countries are exposed to household air pollution from reliance on polluting cooking fuels (e.g. wood, charcoal). There is a dearth of information on barriers to adoption and sustained use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). METHODS: A cross-sectional demographic and fuel use survey was conducted in peri-urban Mbalmayo in Central Cameroon. Stratified random sampling was conducted to identify LPG users and solid fuel users. Participants completed in-depth surveys on individual and household characteristics. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with the non use of LPG. RESULTS: Among households using solid fuels (n=196), the main reported barrier to LPG adoption included the initial cost of LPG equipment (n=87; 59%). Concerns over LPG safety were a significant concern in both users and non-users of LPG (n=366; 83.6%) perceived LPG to be dangerous). More than a quarter reporting difficulty in obtaining an LPG cylinder refill when the cylinder was empty (n=127; 29%). Stacking was universal (100%) amongst LPG users, with cost of refills, free secondary fuel, and distance from retail point influencing the more exclusive use of LPG for clean cooking. The determinants of the non use of LPG were: education level (P = 0.023), non access to flush toilet (P=0.000), age group of 36-45 years (P = 0.037), low cash income (P=0.047); no pipe for water at home (P=0.047), the cost of LPG (P=0.018), behaviour on LPG dangerousness (0.034). CONCLUSIONS: To scale LPG adoption in peri-urban Cameroon, addressing safety concerns through education, and financially supporting households should be prioritized. Policies to facilitate uptake of LPG should be targeted on populations with low socioeconomic status. KEY WORDS: LPG, clean cooking, adoption

Supply-side factors of LPG adoption and usage frequency in Ghana: Assessing the validity of subjective distance to refill

Despite numerous policy efforts to promote the transition to clean cooking fuels, the use of solid cooking fuel persists in developing countries. The scenario calls for a study on the factors influencing the adoption of clean cooking fuels. Hence, this study investigates the supply-side determinants of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) adoption and usage frequency in Ghana. We conduct a survey among 904 households and 19 LPG refill stations and collect self-reported and geolocational data in the Ga South municipality and Ada West districts of Ghana to compare the validity of the subjective and objective measures of distance to refill stations. We find that the distance to refill stations negatively influences LPG's adoption and usage frequency, and the result is robust across different measures of distance. However, the provision of multiple services at refill stations increases household LPG use. Other key factors influencing usage frequency include policy interventions as well as behavioral and socio-economic characteristics of households. Our results support the validity of subjective estimates by respondents on the distance traveled to access a refill station. These findings have significant policy implications, particularly for developing countries facing challenges in infrastructure for the LPG distribution.

Impact of clean cooking fuel adoption on women\u2019s welfare in India: the mediating role of women\u2019s autonomy

While the health and environmental benefits of adopting clean cooking fuel are widely documented in the literature, the immediate and direct benefit—women’s time-saving for fuel collection/preparation and cooking—has received little or no attention. Using panel data from 6 energy-poor Indian states involving about 9000 households, we test whether liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) adoption enhances women’s welfare by reducing fuel collection/preparation and cooking time and improving the overall cooking experience through a convenient and efficient cooking arrangement. We also explore the association between women’s participation in decision-making and the likelihood of LPG adoption and refill. The findings reveal that LPG adopters save time by collecting firewood less frequently and preparing fewer pieces of dung cake than non-adopters. Additionally, LPG adopters save 15 min of cooking time per day than non-adopters. Finally, LPG adoption makes the cooking experience more convenient and simpler than traditional cooking fuel. Women’s sole or joint decision-making power is positively correlated with LPG adoption and refilling LPG cylinders. These findings imply that the true social benefit of clean cooking fuel adoption is much greater than the welfare gain accrued through greenhouse gas mitigation and health benefits from cleaner air. However, these positive externalities are less likely to be internalized in fuel choice decisions in households where women do not participate in important household decision-making.

Cultural and Economic Barriers in Switching to Clean Cooking Energy: Does Women’s Agency Make a Difference?

The major objective of this study is to identify and analyze cultural and economic barriers to sustained adoption of LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) as the primary clean cooking energy in India, and examining underpinning values and norms in socio-technical energy system of the country. In 2016, the Government of India introduced a mega scheme called Ujjwala for clean cooking energy with LPG connects in women’s name. This policy, however, experienced limited implementation, but did lead to enhancing women’s agency in many areas. Women’s agency is defined briefly as their ability to set goals, develop capacities, and act on their defined goals to realize desired outcomes in wellbeing and capabilities. In the case of switching to clean cooking energy, the question can be posed as: as women are the ones who carry out most of the onerous work of collecting and cooking with wood, are they able to make decisions on the adoption of clean cooking fuel, that enhance their agency and the wellbeing of their families? Male-centred cultural and economic norms can be changed by the exercise of women’s agency, when (1) women have unmediated asset ownership rights to land, houses, and energy technology; (2) they are organized in groups for earning cash incomes and energy access; (3) they have acquired new knowledge, skills, and finances to acquire and operate new technologies; and (4) women have experienced the effects of policy change addressing gendered norms.

Interventions to mitigate indoor air pollution: A cost-benefit analysis.

Globally, around three billion people depend upon solid fuels such as firewood, dry animal dung, crop residues, or coal, and use traditional stoves for cooking and heating purposes. This solid fuel combustion causes indoor air pollution (IAP) and severely impairs health and the environment, especially in developing countries like Pakistan. A number of alternative household energy strategies can be adopted to mitigate IAP, such as using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, biogas, electric stoves, or improved cook stoves (ICS). In this study, we estimate the benefit-cost ratios and net present value of these interventions over a ten-year period in Pakistan. Annual costs include both fixed and operating costs, whereas benefits cover health, productivity gains, time savings, and fuel savings. We find that LPG has the highest benefit-cost ratio, followed by natural gas, while ICS has the lowest benefit-cost ratio. Electric stoves and biogas have moderate benefit-cost ratios that nevertheless exceed one. To maximize the return on cleaner burning technology, the government of Pakistan should consider encouraging the adoption of LPG, piped natural gas, and electric stoves as means to reduce IAP and adopt clean technologies.

The Government-led initiative for increased LPG adoption in Rwanda: modelling demand scenarios and corresponding health impacts

BACKGROUND AND AIM: In 2020, cooking with polluting solid fuels was estimated to be responsible for 3,255 premature deaths and 172,643 DALYs in Rwanda. The Rwandan government has set an ambitious target of halving the proportion of the population using solid fuels in traditional stoves to 40% by 2024, mostly through scaling up adoption of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for clean cooking. We report here modelling conducted for the Rwandan government to estimate the health impacts of this transition with different scenarios of LPG household adoption in years 2024 and 2030 (Sustainable Development Goals). METHODS: Three demand scenarios are modelled: the “Business as Usual” (BAU) scenario, and two interventional scenarios (Low and High Intervention Scenarios). BAU projects current demographic, market and industry trends unabated to 2024 and 2030. LIS adds the effects of policies and measures to improve access to LPG. HIS includes more aggressive assumptions regarding LPG availability and promotion, including increased consumer awareness through campaigns about the advantages of LPG cooking as compared with wood fuels. Health impacts of each scenario are estimated. RESULTS:In 2020, 5.6% of Rwandan households were estimated to be using LPG. This proportion is projected to increase to 10.4% in 2024 and 24.0% in 2030 under BAU; to 11.7% in 2024 and 31.2% in 2030 under LIS; and to 13.2% in 2024, and 38.5% in 2030 under HIS. Depending on the level of LPG adoption, the cumulative number of averted deaths was estimated to range between 2,590 and 7,656 between 2021 to 2030, and the cumulative number of averted DALYs was estimated to range from 135,716 to 403,664. CONCLUSIONS:To achieve the Rwandan government’s aspirational target of LPG adoption will require aggressive policies and interventions, but will in turn have significant health gains both in terms of reduced mortality and morbidity through reductions in exposure to household air pollution. KEYWORDS: household air pollution, LPG adoption, health impacts, Rwanda

Factors that Affect the Adoption of Liquefied Petroleum Gas in Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania

Identification of the factors affecting the adoption of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is necessary in creating enabling environment for promoting LPG usage in Tanzania. This paper examines factors that affect the adoption of LPG in the jurisdiction of Kinondoni Municipal Council; one of the five municipalities in the city of Dar es Salaam. A cross-sectional research design, involving 466 households from three wards (Msasani, Kijitonyama and Tandale) was employed to capture qualitative and quantitative data. Content analysis was carried out using the Likert scale to observe perceived factors affecting the adoption of LPG. Chi square test and binary logistic regression were performed to examine the likelihood of the adoption of LPG to occur. The findings suggest that at the micro level, several factors do affect the adoption of LPG, but different individuals have different perceptions based on personal experiences. Uncovered factors include the quantity of sell, household income, household size, and the level of awareness. At the macro level, fuel availability is assumed to play an important role in determining the adoption and usage of LPG. Chi square test shows the association between different variables and LPG usage; while logistic regression reveals two variables—education and household expenditure (proxy for income)—as significant factors. The study recommends that the creation of enabling environment for LPG usage in the municipality should pay more attention to issues related to education and income.

Association of personal network attributes with clean cooking adoption in rural South India

Adoption of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the primary policy approach in India to transition rural poor communities toward clean cooking behavior. Prior clean cooking studies show that affordability, accessibility, and awareness impact LPG adoption in India. There is scarce research that explores the association of personal networks of community members in their LPG adoption. In this cross-sectional study, we use standard egocentric personal network analyses and multivariate logistic regression models to examine the association of structure and composition of personal networks with LPG adoption in poor communities. Our results show that higher proportions of peers owning LPG are associated with higher likelihood of LPG ownership in the respondents (OR = 41.30, 95% confidence interval: 16.86–101.20, p = 0.00). This study on personal network characteristics in clean cooking research offers a germane foundation for further large scale personal network studies on clean cooking adoption in poor communities.

Microfinance for clean cooking: What lessons can be learned for scaling up LPG adoption in Kenya through managed loans?

Liquidity constraints are a key barrier to acquisition and sustained use of clean household energy in resource-poor settings. This study evaluates a pilot microfinance initiative in Kenya to help low-income rural households access liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking. Program beneficiaries received a six-month loan that covered all equipment costs and was to be repaid in monthly installments. We present results from surveys of beneficiaries (n = 69) after they began using LPG, as well as 332 non-beneficiaries from the same community (to understand how beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries differ in cooking patterns and socioeconomic outcomes). 94% of beneficiaries had repaid their loan in full and on time at the time of data collection. Meanwhile, beneficiaries were more likely than non-beneficiaries to use LPG as their primary cooking fuel (76.8% of beneficiaries versus 38.8% of non-beneficiaries). While 81.1% of beneficiaries who used LPG as their primary cooking fuel reported multiple fuel use, we find beneficiaries increased LPG use by 5.9 h per week with a corresponding decrease of 4.8 h in weekly use of biomass fuel. Our findings suggest that promoting LPG usage through microloans for equipment is likely to be both commercially viable and beneficial to health through decreased use of polluting biomass fuel.

Drivers of the Adoption and Exclusive Use of Clean Fuel for Cooking in Sub-Saharan Africa: Learnings and Policy Considerations from Cameroon.

Household air pollution (HAP) caused by the combustion of solid fuels for cooking and heating is responsible for almost 5% of the global burden of disease. In response, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has recommended the urgent need to scale the adoption of clean fuels, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). To understand the drivers of the adoption and exclusive use of LPG for cooking, we analysed representative survey data from 3343 peri-urban and rural households in Southwest Cameroon. Surveys used standardised tools to collect information on fuel use, socio-demographic and household characteristics and use of LPG for clean cooking. Most households reported LPG to be clean (95%) and efficient (88%), but many also perceived it to be expensive (69%) and unsafe (64%). Positive perceptions about LPG’s safety (OR = 2.49, 95% CI = 2.04, 3.05), cooking speed (OR = 4.31, 95% CI = 2.62, 7.10), affordability (OR = 1.7, 95% CI = 1.38, 2.09), availability (OR = 2.17, 95% CI = 1.72, 2.73), and its ability to cook most dishes (OR = 3.79, 95% CI = 2.87, 5.01), were significantly associated with exclusive LPG use. Socio-economic status (higher education) and household wealth (higher income) were also associated with a greater likelihood of LPG adoption. Effective strategies to raise awareness around safe use of LPG and interventions to address financial barriers are needed to scale wider adoption and sustained use of LPG for clean cooking, displacing reliance on polluting solid fuels.

Jointly modeling the adoption and use of clean cooking fuels in rural India

Solid fuel combustion is a major cause of household air pollution, a leading environmental health risk factor globally. In India, over 750 million people continue to rely on firewood and other solid fuels for daily cooking. We explore the drivers of adoption and use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), India’s dominant clean cooking fuel. We document strides in LPG ownership using a panel dataset of over 8,500 rural households from six Indian states surveyed in 2015 and 2018 (ACCESS), partially due to India’s flagship clean cooking policy Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY). We further demonstrate that the drivers of initial LPG adoption also apply to use. While fuel stacking—using solid fuels and LPG jointly—is pervasive, improved rural incomes and education result in the increased use of clean cooking fuels. After adoption, general LPG customers are predicted to consume on average 93 kilograms of LPG yearly (95% confidence interval (CI): 91–95 kg/year). However, PMUY beneficiaries are predicted to consume 27 kilograms of LPG (95% CI: 24–30 kg/year) less on average than general customers each year, even after controlling for socio-economic differences and years of using LPG. Our findings suggest that additional strategies to accelerate the transition to exclusive LPG use among the 80 million households acquiring LPG through PMUY should aim to improve affordability and increase awareness to realize the full benefits of the Government of India’s investments in cleaner cooking.

Affordability, Accessibility, and Awareness in the Adoption of Liquefied Petroleum Gas: A Case-Control Study in Rural India

Interventions in the clean cooking sector have focused on improved biomass stoves in a bid to address household air pollution (HAP) in low- and middle-income countries. These initiatives have not delivered adequate health and environmental benefits owing to the less than optimal performance of improved biomass stoves. There is an urgency to transition communities to cleaner cooking systems such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to reduce the prevalence of HAP. Adoption of LPG also has challenges. This case-control cross-sectional study with 510 households examines how affordability, accessibility, and awareness (3As) are associated with LPG adoption in rural poor households of Andhra Pradesh, a state of India. Using binomial logistic regression analyses, the study examines the association of 3As with LPG adoption, adjusting for demographic predictors. Results show disparities in LPG adoption owing to affordability, accessibility, and awareness. Household income is positively associated with LPG adoption. Easy availability of biomass deters households from adopting LPG. Concerns for LPG safety reduces likelihood of LPG adoption. On the other hand, attending awareness campaigns on clean cooking benefits is strongly associated with LPG adoption. Awareness drives, primarily targeted marketing campaigns, could help expand LPG coverage among poorer households. This paper offers insights into the determinants of clean fuel adoption with implications for resource-poor settings across the world to advance energy justice and address energy poverty.

Sustained LPG use requires progress on broader development outcomes.

While the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana has been instrumental in increasing India's liquefied petroleum gas adoption, sustained use depends on factors such as regularity of income and ease of access to free-of-cost biomass. To ensure sustained use after adoption, interventions in clean cooking energy must tie in with broader rural development.