Limestone Filler Research Articles

Preliminary study on the application of waste bivalve shells as biofiller for the production of asphalt concrete

The shells of molluscs are a common by-product of the aquaculture industry, and their management represents a significant environmental challenge. Although mollusc farming is considered a low-impact food production, improper shell management could make bivalve farming less environmentally efficient. To address this issue, research is exploring new approaches to reduce waste accumulation and convert shell waste into a valuable resource. The shells of bivalves are functional materials from biological waste, composed mainly of CaCO3, and can be used as secondary raw materials in various applications. In order to meet the demanding environmental target, the road sector is increasing the use of recycled materials in new construction or maintenance of old ones. The present work illustrates the results of several laboratory tests carried out to determine the physical and chemical properties of three different crushed bivalve shells waste for the application as filler in asphalt concretes. The present study highlighted the similarity of these materials with the limestone filler since no significant discrepancy between the mechanical (or technical) performance of the biofiller and the traditional limestone filler are detected through the test carried out, promoting their use in new asphalt concrete mixtures.

Waste silica sand as a possible pozzolanic filler to produce cement mortars: experimental investigation

The present paper discusses experimental results obtained on several mortars prepared using a commercial type1 OPC cement, a commercial limestone aggregate with maximum particles dimension below 5 mm, superplasticizer and water. Different amounts of a waste silica sand, in form of loose powder, derived from the industrial production of refractory blocks, were added to the above basic components. Several additional samples were also prepared using same basic commercial components added by different amounts of a fine limestone filler. This latter set of compositions was used to prepare samples to be used as reference materials. Waste silica sand and fine limestone filler were used as received from their producer. During preparation, pastes containing silica sand showed better workability compared to all the other blended components. All hydrated materials displayed fair compressive strength and low water absorption after curing, but those containing silica sand showed the best mechanical performances due to their low residual porosity and to the pozzolanic reaction which could enable application for the production of structures in direct contact with water or aggressive environments such as sewers or tanks suitable for the containment of organic substances.

Optimizing self-compacting mortars with fillers from sustainable industrial by-products: evaluation of durability parameters

This study investigates the transformative potential of repurposing non-biodegradable industrial by-products, specifically glass, brick, and sanitary ceramic waste, as alternative fillers for self-compacting mortars (SCM). Positioned within the framework of sustainability and enhanced performance, we conduct an in-depth comparative analysis against traditional limestone fillers to ascertain the efficacy of these unconventional materials. Employing a comprehensive methodology, we conduct spreading tests, evaluate heat of hydration, and assess mechanical resistance. Additionally, we delve into key durability parameters, including water-accessible porosity and capillarity, to comprehensively understand the nuanced effects of diverse fillers on the characteristics of the resulting self-compacting mortars. The experimental timeline unfolds through a series of assessments, measuring compressive and tensile strengths at strategic intervals - 2, 7, 28, 90, 270, and 365 days post-application. After 270 days of maturation, our study rigorously examines durability parameters. The findings unequivocally reveal a significant enhancement in SCM performance when incorporating glass, brick, and sanitary ceramic waste as fillers, outperforming conventional limestone fillers. Of notable significance is the consistent superiority of ceramic fillers across a spectrum of metrics. This research significantly contributes to the understanding of sustainable repurposing of industrial by-products in construction. Moreover, it highlights the pivotal role played by ceramic fillers in elevating rheological, mechanical, and durability attributes of self-compacting mortars. Beyond its immediate implications, this study opens new avenues for environmentally responsible and economically viable construction materials, promising further advancements and innovation in the field.

Effects of acidic environments and sorptivity on high-performance concrete containing natural pozzolan and limestone filler

Even though high-performance concrete (HPC) is a more robust type of concrete, acidic environments can still have a negative impact on it. Acids can dissolve other components in the concrete as well, leading to a loss of material and increased porosity. This makes the concrete even more susceptible to further degradation. Acidic environments attack the calcium hydroxide (CH), a key component of the cement paste that binds the aggregate in concrete. This reaction weakens the structure and reduces the overall strength of the concrete. The purpose of this study is to assess how HPC containing natural pozzolan (NP) and limestone filler (LF) responds to acidic environments and sorptivity. The cement (PC) was replaced by NP and LF in different mass proportions. The mixtures HPCC (100% PC), HPC18 (10%LF + 90%PC), HPC7 (20%NP + 80%PC), and HPC14 (5%LF + 10%NP + 85%PC) were prepared. The sorptivity was evaluated by measuring the sorptivity coefficient (S, cm*s-0.5) after 28 days of submersion in distilled water. HPC specimens were submersed in distilled water, 5% sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and 5% hydrochloric acid (HCl) for up to 180 days in order to test their acid resistance. Visual inspection and changes in mass were used to evaluate the specimens' resistance to acid attack. The results showed that replacing PC with LF and NP reduced the sorptivity of HPC. Substituting 10% of PC mass with LF increased the HPC's resistance to sulfuric acid. However, substituting the PC with NP and/or LF reduced the HPC's resistance to hydrochloric acid. According to visual inspection and mass losses, the sulfuric acid was more aggressive than hydrochloric acid.

Determination of optimum limestone filler content in asphalt mastic by dielectric spectroscopy

The rheological and dielectric characteristics of asphalt mastics with different ratios of limestone filler were analyzed and compared with each other for road pavement applications. The dielectric properties of asphalt mastics are studied as a function of frequency (0,1–106 Hz) at different temperatures ((-)40°C−40°C). The glass transition temperature and the relaxation behaviour were determined by Vogel–Fulcher-Tamman and Cole–Cole equations, respectively. The free volume fraction was calculated by the Dolittle equation. The filler ratio dependence of the dielectric properties was attributed to the variation of the void fraction. This result was related to the glass transition temperature and ductility. The sample with 6 wt% limestone filler showed the highest dielectric constant value among all samples for all temperatures due to the excellent adhesion between binder and filler. Consequently, it was determined to be the optimum value to design hot mix asphalt for use in territories with high-temperature differences.

Utilizing Fine Marine Sediment as a Partial Substitute for Sand in Self-Compacting Concrete Specially Designed for Application in Marine Environments

The disposal of marine sediments poses a significant economic and environmental challenge on a global scale. To address this issue and promote resource optimization within a circular-economy paradigm, this research investigates the viability of incorporating untreated fine marine sediments as a partial replacement for sand in self-compacting concrete (SCC) designed especially for application in marine environments (an exposure class of XS2 and a resistance class of C30/37 according to standard NF EN 206). The concretes mis-design incorporating 30% by weight of sediment as a sand substitute was initially designed with the modified Dreux–Gorisse method. The findings indicate that it is feasible to design an SCC suitable for marine environments, incorporating 30% sediment replacement content and without significantly compromising concrete properties, durability, or the estimated lifespan of the formulated concretes. The integration of marine sediment as a sand substitute into the SCC mix design reduces the amount of binder and limestone filler without compromising the paste volume. This results in a significant saving of natural sand resources and a reduction in CO2 emissions for SCC made with marine sediment.

Evaluation of particle morphology and size of mineral filler and their effects on mastic rheological and creep behavior: Experimental and numerical characterizations

The primary objective was to evaluate the effects of particle morphology and size of mineral fillers on mastic rheological and creep properties. Experimentally, eight fillers prepared using the same grinding procedure were characterized. Dynamic shear rheometer and bending beam rheometer tests were employed to evaluate mastic rheological and creep behavior, respectively. Numerically, a dynamic viscoelastic model and Burgers creep damage model based on fractional derivatives were established. Results demonstrate that the datasets agree well using fewer model parameters, which can illustrate the availability of the proposed numerical method for the response of all analyzed mastic specimens. As the particle size decreases, material parameter and fractional order are increased by 10.31%, 23.45%, 24.72% and 0.68%, 1.46%, 1.48% for mastics containing limestone filler; and that are increased by 7.07%, 15.38%, 38.06% and 0.76%, 0.85%, 1.18% for mastics with granite filler at 45 °C, respectively. Apart from 150 to 200 mesh size range, the mastic with granite filler is less prone to creep damage accumulation inside the specimen than that containing limestone filler during the loading process. As the particle size increases, relaxation time is rapidly increased by 5.41%, 26.35%, 27.99% and 5.55%, 20.98%, −1.33% for limestone filler-asphalt mastics and granite filler-asphalt mastics, respectively. Moreover, form factor is the determining influential factor for mastic anti-rutting performance, temperature susceptibility and creep damage, while fractal dimension is the most relational factor affecting mastic dissipation capacity, regardless of filler lithology. All the results are conducive to designing mineral filler that fabricates mastic with the desired property.

Investigation of the self-healing, road performance and cost–benefit effects of an iron tailing/asphalt mixture in pavement

As a solid waste, iron tailings urgently need to be addressed to prevent further environmental and social issues. This study attempted to replace natural limestone filler (LSF) with 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% iron tailing filler (ITF) in an asphalt mixture to improve its microwave self-healing properties. For this purpose, the microscopic appearance and chemical composition of the ITF and LSF were first characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) test, while their microwave heating capacity and electromagnetic loss properties were explored. The microwave thermal behaviors of asphalt mixtures containing different substitution ratios of ITF were analyzed via infrared thermography. The self-healing abilities of the various mixtures were tested by five fracture-healing cycles with three-point bending (3PB) test. In addition, the high-temperature stability, low-temperature crack resistance and water stability of the mixtures were evaluated. Furthermore, the economic and beneficial aspects of the ITF-doped mixtures were assessed by cost–benefit analysis (CBA). The experimental results suggest that an ITF with more metal oxides and better electromagnetic loss characteristics exhibits favorable microwave heating ability. After fifth crack-healing cycle, the healing capacity of the mixtures with 60% and 80% ITF increased by 2.5 and 2.75 times, respectively, compared to that of the mixture without ITF. A total of 40% is the recommended appropriate addition of ITF, which helps to improve or has less impact on the road performance. Additionally, based on the CBA method, the incorporation of more than 60% ITF into an asphalt mixture can provide considerable economic efficiency. As a consequence, the potential use of ITF as an eco-friendly filler in asphalt mixture presents new opportunities for waste recycling and resource conservation while also introducing novel approaches for self-healing pavement.

Secondary durability implications: Steam cured, carbonated concrete containing limestone filler, and GGBFS

The motivation of this work is three-fold: jurisdictions are moving from general use (GU) cement to general use limestone (GUL) cement or Portland cement (PC) to Portland limestone cement (PLC); ‘carbonation curing regimes’ are being widely considered/studied/implemented; and modular construction using precast elements may achieve ‘lower carbon’ concrete infrastructure. This study aims to examine the interplay between various mix constituents (i.e. GU, GUL, limestone filler (LF), and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)), curing regimes (atmospheric (0.04% CO2), accelerated (3% CO2) carbonation, and steam curing), and coupled environmental effects on durability of ready mix and precast concrete. In this study, the term “secondary durability implications” of carbonation processes refers to the effect of carbonation on the concrete's indicators of durability (i.e. water absorption (sorptivity), and rapid chloride permeability) and its durability (i.e. against freeze/thaw cycles and deicer scaling). The results reveal that: 1) a combination of GUL cement +10% GGBFS achieves a lower carbonation depth and a higher compressive strength than the other mix designs in the same curing regime without steam curing; 2) steam curing within 24 h of casting leads to a lower long term strength and a greater carbonation depth for a same mix design that is moist cured; and 3) secondary durability implications of (accelerated and atmospheric) carbonation cured (after 28-day moist curing) concrete for the (GUL cement + 10%GGBFS) prisms exhibit stronger resistance against 300 freeze-thaw cycles and de-icer salt scaling resistance compared to the 301-day moist cured mixes.

The Influence of Mineral Additives and Sands on the Performance of Self-Compacting Sand Concretes

Abstract The chosen plan for our case study is a network mixture design consisting of 21 mixtures. The application of this method has proven to be immensely useful in studying the influence of composition parameters (composite design) and the utilization of various types of mineral additives (mixture design). The application of the Design of Experiments (DOE) method, based on a statistical approach, allowed for a better understanding of the effect of formulation parameters, including the proportion of alluvial sand (75%), dune sand (25%), the total amount of sand kept at constant percentages, the dosages of brick powder, limestone filler and ceramic powder (all varying from 0 %, 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %), while keeping the dosage of superplasticizer and the water/binder ratio constant. This approach helped to understand the interactions between these parameters and their impact on the process. Mathematical models relating the variations of these parameters to the workability and compressive strength of such concrete mixtures have been established. The results obtained show that the workability of SCSC (expressed by slump flow and V-funnel flow) improves with the increase in the dosage of limestone filler (FC), brick powder (PB), and ceramic powder (PC), with element having a different impact, be it alone or in a combination. Moreover, they all improved the behavior of SCSC in both the fresh and hardened states. The experiment shows that increasing the proportions of FC and PC in the mixture, whether linear, binary, or ternary, leads to a significant improvement in compressive strength. Furthermore, better strength is observed in the ternary mixture at 28 days, with a strength of 43 MPa, with the following proportions (FC 70%, PB 20%, PC 10%). Finally, the result at 180 days of 48 MPa confirms the following proportions (PC 60 %, FC 30 %, PB 10 %) The compliance of some SCSC compositions was tested according to the recommendations of the French Association of Civil Engineering.

WASTEWATER SLUDGE ASH IN THE PRODUCTION OF A NOVEL COLD MIX ASPHALT (CMA): DURABILITY, AGING AND TOXICITY CHARACTERISTICS

New Sustainable with no CO2 emission cold mix asphalt (CMA) for road and highways surfacing is successfully developed from wastewater sludge ash normally sent to landfills. The Paper reports; durability in terms of water sensitivity, aging and contamination levels of heavy metals of the new developed novel CMA containing upgraded fly and bottom ash secondary cementitious materials from United Utilities fly and bottom ashes. Road engineers currently restricted the use of conventional CMA containing conventional limestone fillers (LF) for use in walkways and light trafficked roads only, as these mixtures needs from 2 to 24 months for curing. Conventional CMA mixtures also have high voidage contents and thus low traffic bearing capacity. The durability of these mixes is low especially in the UK and European countries where the climate is predominantly wet and cold.In Germany and France, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) replaced the filler used in traditional CMA. Although this allows the new CMA to be used in roads for light and heavy trafficked loads. The materials are not environmentally friendly, as one tone of cement releases approximately one tone of CO2 emission during their manufacturing process. The results of the new developed CMA are satisfying the British and European codes of practices requirements. The new novel mixtures are also; highly cost-effective compared with the use of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA), has no CO2 emission during mixing construction, and has no health and safety issues compared with the HMA manufacturing and application process.

Methodology for formulating low-carbon printable mortar through particles packing optimization

High packing density is one of the key factors for obtaining ultra-high-performance cementitious materials in the hardened state. Packing density also plays a role in the fresh state, influencing various properties of dense suspensions, including rheological properties and stability, which are highly important in 3d printing applications. The maximum packing density of a specific mixture can be estimated by considering the geometrical properties and proportions of each component using the compressive packing model (CPM). This paper aims to utilize the CPM as an efficient tool for designing cementitious materials specifically tailored for large-scale 3D printing of mortar in bi-component printing systems, with a focus on maximizing the performance-to-environmental impact ratio. Two different sets of mixtures were prepared for this study. Set A consisted of cement, sand, and silica fume, while Set B utilized cement, multiple sands, and multiple limestone fillers. Within each group, various mixtures were tested on a small scale to validate their rheological properties, particularly the yield stress. Pumpability, extrudabilty and buildability were evaluated by utilizing these mixtures in different printing sessions. Additionally, the compressive strengths of these mixtures were characterized. Finally, a method for designing a printable mixture is presented, and efficient and printable formulations with low cement ratio are proposed and printed.

Micromechanics approach to calculate the adsorbed asphalt film thickness on mineral fillers and evaluate physiochemical interactions

ABSTRACT Investigations of the physicochemical interactions occurring at asphalt–mineral filler interfaces are important in understanding the mechanisms that govern the mechanical attributes of asphalt mixtures. The measurement of the adsorbed asphalt film thickness (AAFT) provides valuable insights into the underlying physicochemical interactions. However, direct measurement of AAFTs through laboratory tests poses considerable challenges. This study describes AAFT calculation methods based on the N-phase model and Christensen-Lo model. The AAFTs of different types of asphalt mastic were calculated by conducting dynamic shear rheology (DSR) tests. To ascertain the physicochemical mechanisms governing interactions between the asphalt and mineral fillers, fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Brunner−Emmet−Teller (BET), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) studies were carried out. The findings revealed that the AAFT was related to the testing temperature, frequency, filler content, and type. The AAFTs for asphalt mastics with different filler types decreased in the order (from thick to thin) of coal gangue filler, limestone filler, and fly ash. The external specific surface areas and chemical compositions of the mineral fillers emerged as the primary factors influencing their physicochemical interactions with the asphalt. The coal gangue asphalt mastic exhibited a smaller and denser AFM bee structure, which was attributed to the physicochemical interactions. The findings of this research contribute to the selection of mineral fillers and filler/binder ratios that can be utilised for optimising the design of asphalt mixtures comprising different types of fillers.

An investigation of the effect of high temperature on the strength compression and ultrasonic pulse velocity of self-compacting concrete

One of the most significant mechanisms of deterioration in self-compacting concrete (SCC) structures over the course of their service life is exposure to elevated temperatures. For this reason, the effects of elevated temperatures on the residual mechanical properties of SCC made of various cementitious additions (silica fume (SF), limestone filler (LF), and crushed dune sand (SD)) was investigated via partially substituting amount of Portland cement in the SCC. The SCC was formed and heated with the coupling procedure of heating-cooling at ambient temperatures ranging from 20, 150, 400, 600, and 800 °C. The compressive strength (CS) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) were measured after cooling at room temperature of 20 °C. The findings show that CS and UPV exhibit intriguing outcomes for all self-compacting concretes. Otherwise, the UPV decreases with temperature in the range of 250 and 800 °C. In addition, at 600 °C, SCC-SF and SCC-SD have the highest residual compressive strengths, 31.20 and 23.80 MPa, respectively.

Evaluation of self-compacting concrete for concrete repair applications

This study investigates the suitability of utilizing Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) as a repair material for concrete structures. Various SCC mixtures were formulated with different compositions, including 100% cement, 30% limestone fillers, 40% blast furnace slag, and 10% silica fume. The fresh properties, such as fluidity, deformability, and stability, were evaluated to optimize the SCC mixtures for repair applications. The mechanical properties, including compressive strength, tensile strength, and elastic modulus, were assessed and compared to vibrated ordinary concrete (VOC). Additionally, the bond strength between the SCC repair material and the existing concrete substrate was investigated using simulated repair specimens subjected to indirect tensile bond and splitting tensile bond tests. The results demonstrated the superior mechanical performance of SCC compared to VOC, with higher compressive and tensile strengths. Furthermore, the incorporation of mineral additives, such as limestone fillers, slag, and silica fume, enhanced the mechanical properties and bond strength of the SCC mixtures. The study highlights the potential advantages of using SCC over VOC for concrete repair applications, offering improved mechanical performance and adhesion characteristics.

Improving early strength and durability of eco-friendly mortars: Investigating the influence of limestone filler fineness and blast furnace slag combination

This study investigates eco-friendly approaches for enhancing the early mechanical strength and durability of mortars utilizing slag. a byproduct of the steel industry. Mortars incorporating slag often exhibit inferior strength and durability compared to those made with cement. The objective is to ameliorate these properties through the incorporation of limestone filler (LF) and granulated ground blast furnace slag (BFS) at varying proportions. either independently or in combination. The physical properties (gas permeability). mechanical properties (compressive and flexural strength at 2. 7. 28. 365. 1095 days). and durability (HCL chemical attack and carbonation) of the resultant mortars were assessed. along with their microstructure using scanning electron microscopy and mercury porosimeter. Experimental findings indicate that the inclusion of LF enhances the initial strength of ternary mortars containing 10-17.5% LF and 10-25% BFS. while subsequent hydration of BFS yields mortars with comparable or superior compressive strength and resistance to chemical attack (HCL) relative to the reference mortar after 365 days

Dosagem de argamassas de alta resistência ecoeficientes otimizadas pelo modelo de empacotamento compressível

Abstract The production of eco-efficient cement-based materials is essential to reduce CO2 emissions from the construction industry. A substantial reduction in global CO2 emissions can be achieved by using clinker in mortar and concrete more efficiently and using low-CO2 minerals as partial replacements for Portland cement. However, the proportioning of eco-efficient composites is complex and the reduction in clinker content may affect its properties. This paper aims to optimize the mix design of high-strength mortars containing supplementary cementitious materials (limestone filler, fly ash, metakaolin, silica fume). The compressible packing model associated with a simplex mixture design were used together with chemical parameters, to limit the amount of active SCMs for the model iterations. The results show a significant decrease in the environmental impact of the mortars, which presented compressive strengths between 76 and 118 MPa at 91 days and binder indexes between 10 and 15 kg/m3/MPa. The reactivity of the SCMs (based on the modified Chapelle test) were successfully used to establish the Portland cement substitution (up to 13%), preventing the presence of unreacted SCMs and optimizing the use of limestone filler and sand, which have a lower environmental impact. The high-performance blends reached 8.73 kg CO2e/MPa, up to a 30% reduction in CO2e emissions compared to the mortar with only Portland cement.

Resistência à compressão e desempenho ambiental de cimentos com resíduo de serragem de mármore.

Abstract Replacing limestone filler by waste marble dust is one of the paths to explore, at a regional level, to stimulate circularity and reduce environmental burdens of ornamental stone processing. This study investigated six blended cements which combined supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and limestone filler or waste marble dust, with a clinker factor of 50%. Compressive strength was determined at 3, 7, 28 and 91 days and evaluated based on the criteria standardized in ABNT NBR 16697:2018. The cementing efficiency at 7 and 28 days of the set of mineral admixtures used and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity of each cement were also calculated. The synergy between the combinations reduced the clinker factor and cement GHG emissions, whilst preserving the mechanical performance required by the construction market.

Artificial neural network approach to predict asphalt mixtures’ stiffness modulus based on testing frequency and temperature

To successfully guarantee the proper durability and serviceability of asphalt pavements, it is crucial to investigate asphalt mixtures’ performance and to design an accurate model to predict their mechanical behaviour. In Machine Learning, Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) consist of a set of layered and interconnected artificial neurons capable of learning a complex function that maps the input to the target output. This study is specifically aimed at their implementation within the field of pavement engineering. The paper thoroughly discusses the development of an ANN-based methodology capable of predicting the stiffness modulus of an asphalt mixture (AM). The AM under investigation was prepared with spilite aggregate, a 50/70 penetration grade bitumen, and limestone filler. The volumetric properties of each specimen were first determined, and then the sequence of a 4-Point Bending Test was carried out under different conditions. Four testing temperatures (0, 10, 20, 30 °C) and eleven loading frequencies (0.1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 50 Hz) were selected to investigate the asphalt mixture's mechanical behaviour. The resulting stiffness moduli represented the output of the designed neural model. Prediction accuracy was evaluated utilizing several goodness-of-fit metrics, and the results of this feasibility study proved to be very encouraging. They are certainly limited to the asphalt mixture under investigation. However, the high level of accuracy suggests that trained on a larger dataset, the developed methodology could allow the AMs’ mechanical behaviour to be predicted without the need to carry out the conventional tests that are usually expensive and time-consuming.

Improving early strength and durability of eco-friendly mortars: Investigating the influence of limestone filler fineness and blast furnace slag combination

This research investigates the application of Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis in the construction industry, focusing on reinforced concrete structures. LCC analysis goes beyond initial building costs, encompassing all expenses throughout a structure's service life. Among various service life prediction models, Life-365 and DURACON are noteworthy. Life-365, a specialized computer program, predicts the life cycle cost of reinforced concrete exposed to chlorides. This paper presents a case study using Life-365 to compare the LCC of two concrete mixes, TM1 and TM2, in Mumbai, a location with conditions conducive to chloride exposure. The study uses average monthly temperatures and location-specific input parameters to evaluate the LCC of M70-grade concrete mixes with different compositions, including Fly Ash, GGBS, and Micro Silica as partial cement replacements. Results indicate that quaternary blended M70 grade concrete, incorporating supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), not only enhance durability but also offers economic benefits, reducing overall life cycle costs. These findings provide valuable insights for engineers and decision-makers, promoting durable, cost-effective, and sustainable concrete structures.