Light Attenuators Research Articles

Research on underwater wireless dynamic optical communication system based on PPM modulation

In order to achieve underwater wireless dynamic optical communication, a laser communication system is proposed based on Pulse Position Modulation (PPM). In order to achieve underwater laser communication accurately, the mathematical model of underwater laser communication was constructed with small angle analysis. The pulse position modulation demodulation algorithm is designed, and the workflow of modulation and demodulation is given in the transmit module and the receive module. In the experiment, Lumileds-470 nm light source was selected for data communication for testing at a communication rate of 15 Mbp/s. In the servo control process, the square wave signal used for stepping motor drive had a stable amplitude output and a stable time width. It can well simulate the testing process of underwater dynamic scanning. In the experiment, laser light spots were obtained under different attenuation states, and the characteristics of the light spot distribution were analyzed. The numerical reconstruction of the light spot energy was completed in MATLAB. Three types of light attenuators, 1.0%, 0.1%, and 0.01%, were used to simulate different light attenuations underwater. The test results show that the system error rate is better than 10−6 when attenuation chip is 1.0%. When attenuation chip is 0.1%, the error rate of the system is reduced to 10−4. When attenuation chip is 0.01%, a valid signal cannot be obtained by the system. The feasibility of the system is verified.

Self-organized microgratings in LiNbO3 fabricated by a slit-shaped femtosecond laser for optical attenuation

Preparing multifunctional 3D microstructures in transparent materials, such as phase plates, light attenuators, and metasurfaces, is critical in science and technology. Here, the self-organized micro-gratings were created inside the z-cut LiNbO3 using slit-shaped femtosecond laser direct writing. The effects of the processing parameters and slit widths on the micro-grating’s formation are investigated. The Raman mapping, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and the micro polariscope are adopted to understand the general mechanism of periodic gratings’ generation. An optical attenuator with a spacing of 15 μm was fabricated to demonstrate the potential of micro-grating. The attenuator showed the max attenuation (about 45 %) at 633 nm, indicating the potential application of micro-gratings in optical information processing. The micro-gratings provide a pathway for expanding the applications of LiNbO3 and fabricating multifunctional photonic structures.

Experimental observation of partial parity-time symmetry and its phase transition with a laser-driven cesium atomic gas

Realization and manipulation of parity-time (PT) symmetry in multidimensional systems are highly desirable for exploring nontrivial physics and uncovering exotic phenomena in non-Hermitian systems. Here, we report the first experimental observation of partial PT (pPT) symmetry in a cesium atomic gas coupled with laser fields, where a two-dimensional pPT-symmetric optical potential for probe laser beam is created. A transition of the pPT symmetry from an unbroken phase to a broken one is observed through changing the beam-waist ratio of the control and probe laser beams, and the domains of unbroken, broken, and non-pPT phases are also discriminated unambiguously. Moreover, we develop a technique to precisely determine the location of the exceptional point of the pPT symmetry breaking by measuring the asymmetry degree of the probe-beam intensity distribution. The findings reported here pave the way for controlling multidimensional laser beams in non-Hermitian systems via laser-induced atomic coherence, and have potential applications for designing new types of light amplifiers and attenuators

Why Are There so Many Plant Species That Transiently Flush Young Leaves Red in the Tropics?

Delayed greening of young leaves is a ubiquitous and visually striking phenomenon in the tropics. Here, we investigated the potential ecological functions of red coloration patterns in young leaves. To detect any protective function of the red coloration on the young leaves, leaf damage by insect herbivores was recorded in the field. To determine capacity for chemical defense, the concentrations of tannins and anthocyanins were measured in both young and mature leaves. To test the hypothesis that anthocyanins function as photo-protective molecules, chlorophyll content, maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (F v/Fm), non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), and effective quantum yield of PSII (ΦPSII) were measured in the field. Phylogenetic relationships were analyzed to test the relationary significance of the occurrence of redness in young leaves. Compared to the coloration in non-red leaves, young red leaves had significant higher anthocyanins and tannins content and lower herbivore damages. Young, red leaves had the lowest Fv/Fm values, which were significantly lower than those of non-red leaves. NPQ values in young red leaves were comparable to those of other groups. Although young red leaves had high ΦPSII, these values were significantly lower than those of the other three groups. The results suggest that the red coloration of young leaves protects them from insect herbivory primary by chemical defense through high concentrations of tannins and anthocyanins. Additionally, low Fv/Fm values in young red leaves indicate that anthocyanins might not be functioning as light attenuators to compensate for insufficient photo-protection mediated by NPQ. And finally, red coloration in young leaves is predominantly a result of adaptation to heavy herbivory stress but without significant intrinsic phylogenetic relationship of plant species.

Reverse-mode thermoresponsive light attenuators produced by optical anisotropic composites of nematic liquid crystals and reactive mesogens

Polymer network liquid crystals (PNLCs) whose optical transmittance state switches between transparence at low temperatures and haze at high temperatures were fabricated from mixtures of nematic liquid crystals (LCs) and reactive mesogens (RMs). This PNLC structure is simple but effective, namely, consists of micro-scale domains of orientation-ordered LCs and anisotropically polymerized RMs. The domains form through photopolymerization induced phase separation with inhomogeneous irradiation projected by laser speckling techniques. This irradiation method enables you to control the size and shape of phase-separation domains, and these PNLCs can be applied to novel thermoresponsive optical devices; optical isolators, thermometric sheets, and smart windows.

The role of biofoam in shielding spittlebug nymphs (Insecta, Hemiptera, Cercopidae) against bright light

1. Biofoam in spittlebugs has traditionally been seen as a defence against predation and a microclimate that reduces the risks of overheating and drying out. This study addresses the possible role of the foam as a light attenuator.2. Nymphs exhibit higher mortalities when reared under brighter light (1800–2000 lux) than under less bright light (600–800 lux). At all developmental stages, photoavoidance is strongest when the nymphs are depleted of foam covers. First‐ and second‐instar nymphs appear to be the most vulnerable to exposures by bright light.3. Smaller bubbles are more effective as light attenuators than are larger ones. As younger instars possess smaller canals from which bubbles are released and, furthermore, exhibit higher concentrations of proteins in bubble liquid, they can produce smaller‐sized bubbles and their foams are more effective at reducing light than are those of older nymphs.4. The findings of this study show that most of the visible and UV radiation is reflected by the foam: transmittance of visible light was 15% at 600 nm and 12% at 350 nm.5. These results demonstrate that spittlebug foam also possesses properties that render it an effective barrier against potentially damaging solar radiation.

Electrowetting optical switch with large aperture tuning range

AbstractIn this paper, we propose an optical switch by deforming the shape of the liquid droplet. The optical switch consists of two immiscible liquids. The dye‐doped water is conductive, while the clear liquid is insulating. In the voltage‐off state, incident light can pass through the circular aperture formed of clear liquid. When the voltage is applied to the liquids, the surrounding dye‐doped water pushes to the side wall because of the effect of electric field force. So, the diameter of the circular aperture is rapidly reduced, and the incident light is absorbed by the dye‐doped water. Our results show that the device can obtain an optical attenuation (~350:1) and reasonable response time (~320 ms). The diameter of the aperture can be largely tuned from ~0.5 to ~6.2 mm as the applied voltage is changed from ~25 to ~65 V. The proposed optical switch has potential applications in light shutters, tunable irises, and variable optical attenuators.

Tailoring the multiple electrically resonant transparency through bi-layered metamaterial-induced coupling oscillators

Metamaterials (MMs) can be tailored to support electromagnetic interference, which is the kernel for the material-based electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) phenomena, alternatively transparency based on electric interference can be deemed as electrically resonant transparency (ERT). Here, we experimentally and theoretically demonstrate two kinds of bi-layered MMs. The C3-C6 hybrid MM exhibits triple-mode ERT with transmission peaks of 0.84 at 9.6 GHz, 0.92 at 10.4 GHz, and 0.93 at 11.5 GHz for the horizontally polarized wave, and dual-mode ERT with transmission peaks of 0.84 at 8.8 GHz and 0.91 at 10.2 GHz for the vertically polarized wave. However, the C4-C8 hybrid MM, with two stable transparent peaks of 0.92 and 0.88 at 10.46 GHz and 11.61 GHz, is proven to be polarization independent. The measured results show excellent agreement with numerical simulations. A coupled oscillator model is employed to theoretically study the near field interference between the induced dipoles on the transmission properties. The results presented here will find their application value for multi-mode slow light devices, filters and attenuators, and so on.

Tailoring the slow light behavior in terahertz metasurfaces

We experimentally study the effect of near field coupling on the transmission of light in terahertz metasurfaces. Our results show that tailoring the coupling between the resonators modulates the amplitude of resulting electromagnetically induced transmission, probed under different types of asymmetries in the coupled system. Observed change in the transmission amplitude is attributed to the change in the amount of destructive interference between the resonators in the vicinity of strong near field coupling. We employ a two-particle model to theoretically study the influence of the coupling between bright and quasi-dark modes on the transmission properties of the system and we find an excellent agreement with our observed results. Adding to the enhanced transmission characteristics, our results provide a deeper insight into the metamaterial analogues of atomic electromagnetically induced transparency and offer an approach to engineer slow light devices, broadband filters, and attenuators at terahertz frequencies.

Electrically actuated liquid iris.

We report an adaptive iris using dielectric liquids and a radial-interdigitated electrode. A black liquid is confined by a circular gasket with a donut shape. The surrounding of the black liquid is filled with an immiscible liquid. In the relaxing state, the black liquid obtains the largest clear aperture. By applying a voltage, the surface of the black liquid is stretched by the generated dielectric force, resulting in a reduction of its aperture. For the demonstrated iris, the diameter of the aperture can be changed from ∼4.7 mm to ∼1.2 mm when the voltage is applied from 0 to 70 V(rms). The aperture ratio is ∼94%. Owing to the radial-interdigitated electrode, the aperture size of the iris can be effectively switched with a reasonably fast response time. The optical switch is polarization-insensitive. The potential applications of our iris are light shutters, optical attenuators, biomimicry, and wearable devices.

9.4: Invited Paper: Highly Birefringent Nematic Liquid Crystals and Mixtures

AbstractHighly birefringent liquid crystals have always been desired by many applications in visible, infrared and recently other spectral regions such as THz and GHz as a active medium for various devices fabrication eg. light shutters, shifters, attenuators, filters, electronic lenses, delay lines, antennas, varactors and laser beam steerers.Our own results in the field have been combined with more important ones from literature and have been summarized and reviewed. Special attention will be given to compounds with oligophenyl and tolane based rigid cores for which dual approach of dipol moment generation have been applied (see figure below).imageFor such molecular design the extension of conjugated π electron system leads to high birefringence but simultaneously promotes strongly the presence of smectic phases and increases melting point and enthalpy. Therefore lateral substituents have to be introduced to the rigid core of molecules. The number, volume and position of lateral substituents depends of the length of the rigid core. Molecular engineering leading to compounds with high birefringence Δn, different value of dielectric anisotropy, low viscosity, and a broad temperature range of the nematic phase will be discussed. The properties of broad temperature range nematic mixtures with positive dielectric anisotropy (Δn=0.3‐0.5) will be presented. Additional attention will be given to the development of low losses materials designed for THz and GHz applications.

Diffractive attenuators of laser radiation: Fabrication and optical characteristics

This paper reports on theoretical and experimental studies of a new class of zero-order diffractive elements — diffractive light attenuators with variable transmission. Results of tests of circular diffractive attenuators for wavelengths of 532 and 1064 nm with amplitude and phase transmission functions are presented. Methods of fabrication of the attenuators are discussed, and the characteristics of prototype modles are considered. It is shown that phase attenuators in the form of embossed circular diffractive gratings with a period of 2 to 6 µm and a variable duty cycle are not selective to polarization and allow controlling the radiation power of pulsed (including femtosecond) and continuous lasers over a wide range (> 100 times).

Facile preparation of Carbon nanotubes and graphene sheets by a catalyst-free refluxing approach

A facile catalyst-free one-step approach for the preparation of carbon nanotubes and graphene sheets at ambient pressure and ∼ 230 °C has been developed. Carbon nanotubes and graphene sheets are prepared by reducing tetrachloroethylene with sodium in paraffin oil under reflux. The as-prepared products can be easily purified just by washing with common solvents. No metallic contaminants or other impurities exist in the products. The products show unique optical properties and may find various applications such as optical light attenuators and catalyst supports. This high yield and economical process presents a possible strategy for the large-scale production of carbon nanotubes and graphene sheets for future applications. Open image in new window

Functional role of anthocyanins in high‐light winter leaves of the evergreen herb Galax urceolata

High-light leaves of the evergreen herb Galax urceolata exhibit a striking color change from green to red during winter months due to anthocyanin synthesis in outermost mesophyll cells. Here we investigate three possible functions of this color change. To test the hypothesis that anthocyanins function as light attenuators, maximum photosystem II efficiency (F(v)/F(m)) of red and green leaves was measured during and after exposure to wavelengths either strongly or poorly absorbed by anthocyanin. To determine whether anthocyanins elevate radical-scavenging capacity, antioxidant activity of red and green leaves was assessed using the alpha,alpha-diphenyl-beta-picrylhydrazyl assay. Nonstructural carbohydrate levels were analyzed to test the hypothesis that anthocyanins function as a carbon sink. Declines in F(v)/F(m) under white and green light were significantly greater for green than red leaves, but were comparable under red light. Anthocyanin content positively correlated with antioxidant activity. Although levels of anthocyanins did not appear to be related to nonstructural carbohydrate concentration, high levels of sugars may be necessary for their photo-induction. Results suggest that anthocyanins function as light attenuators and may also contribute to the antioxidant pool in winter leaves.

Optical devices based on liquid crystals for protecting an observer from blinding light sources

This paper describes light attenuators based on electrooptic and nonlinear-optical effects in nematic, nemato-chiral, and ferroelectric liquid-crystal systems intended for the protection of an observer’s eyes from blinding effects. The characteristics of attenuators that operate both over the entire field of view and with local modulation are discussed. © 2004 Optical Society of America

Anthocyanins in leaves: light attenuators or antioxidants?

Anthocyanins have the potential to mitigate photooxidative injury in leaves, both by shielding chloroplasts from excess high-energy quanta, and by scavenging reactive oxygen species. To distinguish between the impacts of these two putative mechanisms, superoxide (O2•-) concentration and chlorophyll oxidation were measured for Lactuca sativa L. chloroplast suspensions under various light and antioxidant-supplemented environments. A red cellulose filter, the optical properties of which approximated that of anthocyanin, effected a 33% decline in rate of O2•- generation and 37% reduction in chlorophyll bleaching, when used to shield irradiated chloroplasts. Colourless and blue tautomers of cyanidin 3-(6-malonyl)glucoside at pH 7 removed up to 17% of O2•- generated by chloroplasts, indicating that cytosolic anthocyanins can serve as effective antioxidants. Red tautomers, typical of vacuolar anthocyanins, also showed strong reducing potentials as indicated by cyclic voltammetry. These potentials declined by 40% after 15 min exposure to O2•-. Maximum quantum efficiencies of photosynthesis were similar for red and green portions of intact L. sativa leaves, but the red regions were less photoinhibited, and recovered more extensively after exposures to strong light. Anthocyanins evidently offer effective and versatile protection to leaves without significantly compromising photosynthesis.

APPLICATION OF POLYMER DISPERSED LIQUID CRYSTAL (PDLC) NEMATIC: OPTICAL-FIBER VARIABLE ATTENUATOR

Dispersions of liquid crystals in polymeric matrices (PDLC) are used as light Variable Optical Attenuators (VOAs). Electronically controllable VOAs play a crucial role for channel power equalizers in WDM systems. This article describes the theoretical model optimizing PDLC performance and the fabrication process utilizing the polymerization-induced phase separation (PIPS) method, and presents the optical attenuation (OA) and polarization dependence loss (PDL) characteristics versus fabrication conditions. Fabricated VOAs have a large attenuation range (10–30 dB) and low insertion loss (IL) at a 1.55 µm wavelength (0.5 dB). Depending on the fabrication parameters, the OA, IL, and PDL are optimized. This device needs an applied voltage V90 of 10 to 70 Vrms for 10–100 µm PDLC thickness. The flatness of the optical characteristics of this device has also been measured in the C+L band.

Spatial and temporal patterns of light attenuation among lakes of the Mackenzie Delta

SUMMARY 1. The seasonal dynamics of light attenuation, and the relative roles of total suspended solids (TSS), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and chlorophyll as light attenuators among two sets of lakes in the Mackenzie Delta, were assessed during the open‐water periods of 1998 and 1999.2. The first set consisted of 40 spatially discrete lakes where the frequency of flooding with river water was controlled by sill height (‘sill‐set lakes’). The second set consisted of a chain of six lakes connected to a main river channel (frequently flooded, all with same frequency), but where riverine influence was controlled by the distance from the channel connection point (‘chain‐set lakes’).3. As the flooding frequency of lakes decreased (sill‐set), and as the distance from the channel connection point increased (chain‐set), lake water became increasingly transparent and the stability (decreasing temporal variability) of underwater light increased.4. The effect of flooding on transparency was greater in years with a high minimum summer water level. However, the effect of river flooding on lake water transparency was damped more by an increase in the frequency and duration of flooding than by an increase in distance from the channel connection point.5. The index of scattering was linearly related to TSS over the common range of concentrations in both sets of lakes. The specific attenuation coefficient for TSS (and scattering) increased substantially from the most turbid to the most transparent waters.6. During the summer, DOC provided an approximate index of water colour in the sill‐set lakes but not in the chain‐set lakes, where the gradient of DOC ran counter to the gradient of water colour. The specific attenuation coefficient for water colour was roughly constant among both sets of lakes.7. Calculations of partial attenuation show that, during the spring flood peak, TSS is the dominant attenuator among most lakes, other than those with high sills or positioned far from channel connection points. During the lengthy summer period of open water, however, water colour appeared to be the most important light attenuator among almost all of the lakes in the central delta, with chlorophyll a of only minor importance.8. Lakes of the Mackenzie Delta may be quite sensitive to changes in climate and ultraviolet‐b (UV‐b) radiation in the circumpolar arctic because of the role of DOC as an attenuator of photosynthetically active radiation and UV‐b irradiance and as an energy source for microbial foodwebs in this system.

Diffractive light attenuators with variable transmission

A new application of diffractive optical elements (DOEs) for continuous or multistage adjustment of optical radiation intensity is described. The diffractive attenuators are linear or circular gratings (amplitude or phase) with constant period and diffraction efficiency that varies across the grating. The zero order of diffraction is used as the output and transmitted through the grating without angular deviation. The diffractive attenuators, in distinction to conventional analogues, allow one to change the intensity of the light beam according to predetermined function and have no limitations for power of the regulated light beam. These elements can be used in optical systems as a beam splitter with adjusted splitting coefficient. The experimental results on a circular diffractive attenuator fabricated by direct laser writing on a chromium film are presented. The range of transmission variation was 20 times within a 340° angle of attenuator turn. The possibility to use a phase diffractive attenuator as a light radiation modulator for a powerful technological laser is discussed.

Diffractive light attenuators with variable transmission

Diffractive light attenuators with variable transmission