Lexical-semantic Knowledge Research Articles

Lexical-semantic knowledge about food in patients with different types of dementia

Event Abstract Back to Event Lexical-semantic knowledge about food in patients with different types of dementia Raffaella I. Rumiati1*, Francesco Foroni1, Giulio Pergola1, Paola Rossi2 and Maria C. Silveri2 1 Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, Area of Neuroscience, Italy 2 Universita' Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Neurology department, Italy While many theories agree that the conceptual knowledge is organized in categories, there is less agreement on the underlying organizational principle (e.g. Warrington & Shallice, 1984, Caramazza & Shelton, 1998; Capitani et al., 2003). Previous neuropsychological studies on semantic categories failed to clearly characterize the status of food as a category as they did not carefully distinguish between natural food and transformed food. Exploring how natural food and transformed food items are processed in patients suffering from primary dementia can allow us to test the theories of how semantic knowledge is organized in the brain. Thirty patients and 15 healthy controls matched for age and education took part in the study . Thirteen patients received a presumptive diagnosis of fronto-temporal dementia (FTD), 3 patients of Semantic Dementia (SD), and 14 of Alzheimer Dementia (AD). All participants performed 3 tasks tapping lexical-semantic knowledge about food and non-food items: confrontation naming (Task 1), categorization (Task 2), and word-to-picture matching (Task 3). Moreover, half food items were natural (e.g., apple) and half transformed (e.g. grana cheese), while non-food items were half non edible natural items (e.g., plant) and half kitchen implements. The results showed that, overall, patients performed poorer than controls on Tasks 1 and 3, with FTD-SD patients being more impaired than AD patients. When we compared performance on food versus non-food items, we observed that patients performed better on naming food than non-food items (Task 1). Specifically, FTD-SD patients displayed a significant difference between food and non-food items, while AD patients showed no difference. On Task 3 the same pattern was obtained. In addition, we observed that, across tasks, transformed food was processed better than natural food. These findings suggest that lexical-semantic processes are more prone to degradation in patients FTD-SD than in AD patients, and that food items, particularly the transformed ones, are more resistant to the deficit. Results are interpreted in the light of current theories of conceptual knowledge (Mahon & Caramazza, 2009). References Capitani, E., Laiacona, M., Mahon, B., & Caramazza, A. (2003) What are the facts of semantic-specific deficits? A critical review of the clinical evidence. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20, 213-261. Caramazza, A. & Shelton, J. R. (1998) Domain-specific knowledge systems in the brain: the animate-inanimate distinction. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 1-34. Mahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2009). Concepts and categories: A cognitive neuropsychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 27-51. Warrington, E. K., & Shallice, T. (1984) Category-Specific semantic impairments. Brain, 107, 829-885. Keywords: Food, lexical semantics, conceptual knowledge, Alzheimer's disease, Frontotemporal Dementia Conference: Academy of Aphasia -- 52nd Annual Meeting, Miami, FL, United States, 5 Oct - 7 Oct, 2014. Presentation Type: Poster presentation ONLY Topic: Not student Citation: Rumiati RI, Foroni F, Pergola G, Rossi P and Silveri MC (2014). Lexical-semantic knowledge about food in patients with different types of dementia. Front. Psychol. Conference Abstract: Academy of Aphasia -- 52nd Annual Meeting. doi: 10.3389/conf.fpsyg.2014.64.00091 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 30 Apr 2014; Published Online: 04 Aug 2014. * Correspondence: Prof. Raffaella I Rumiati, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, Area of Neuroscience, Trieste, 34136, Italy, rumiati@sissa.it Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Raffaella I Rumiati Francesco Foroni Giulio Pergola Paola Rossi Maria C Silveri Google Raffaella I Rumiati Francesco Foroni Giulio Pergola Paola Rossi Maria C Silveri Google Scholar Raffaella I Rumiati Francesco Foroni Giulio Pergola Paola Rossi Maria C Silveri PubMed Raffaella I Rumiati Francesco Foroni Giulio Pergola Paola Rossi Maria C Silveri Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Using Web Corpora for the Automatic Acquisition of Lexical-Semantic Knowledge

This article presents two case studies to explore whether and how web corpora can be used to automatically acquire lexical-semantic knowledge from distributional information. For this purpose, we compare three German web corpora and a traditional newspaper corpus on modelling two types of semantic relatedness: (1) Assuming that free word associations are semantically related to their stimuli, we explore to which extent stimulus– associate pairs from various associations norms are available in the corpus data. (2) Assuming that the distributional similarity between a noun–noun compound and its nominal constituents corresponds to the compound’s degree of compositionality, we rely on simple corpus co-occurrence features to predict compositionality. The case studies demonstrate that the corpora can indeed be used to model semantic relatedness, (1) covering up to 73/77% of verb/noun–association types within a 5-word window of the corpora, and (2) predicting compositionality with a correlation of ρ = 0.65 against human ratings. Furthermore, our studies illustrate that the corpus parameters domain, size and cleanness all have an effect on the semantic tasks.

Impaired speech recognition under a cognitive load: Where is the locus?

Improving the validity of speech-recognition models requires an understanding of the conditions in which speech is experienced in everyday life. Listening conditions leading to a degradation of the signal—noise, competing talkers, disordered speech—have received most of the attention in that literature. But what about adverse conditions that do not alter the integrity of the signal, such as listening to speech under a non-auditory cognitive load (CL)? Drawing upon a variety of behavioral methods, this presentation investigates the effects of a concurrent attentional or mnemonic task on the relative reliance on acoustic cues and lexical knowledge during speech-perception tasks. The results show that listeners under CL downplay the contribution of acoustic detail and increase their reliance on lexical-semantic knowledge. However, greater reliance on lexical-semantic knowledge under CL is a cascaded effect of impoverished phonetic processing, not a direct consequence of CL. Ways of integrating CL into the functional architecture of existing speech-recognition models are discussed.

Toddlers Activate Lexical Semantic Knowledge in the Absence of Visual Referents: Evidence from Auditory Priming.

Language learners rapidly acquire extensive semantic knowledge, but the development of this knowledge is difficult to study, in part because it is difficult to assess young children's lexical semantic representations. In our studies, we solved this problem by investigating lexical semantic knowledge in 24-month-olds using the Head-turn Preference Procedure. In Experiment 1, looking times to a repeating spoken word stimulus (e.g., kitty-kitty-kitty) were shorter for trials preceded by a semantically related word (e.g., dog-dog-dog) than trials preceded by an unrelated word (e.g., juice-juice-juice). Experiment 2 yielded similar results using a method in which pairs of words were presented on the same trial. The studies provide evidence that young children activate of lexical semantic knowledge, and critically, that they do so in the absence of visual referents or sentence contexts. Auditory lexical priming is a promising technique for studying the development and structure of semantic knowledge in young children.

Do statistical segmentation abilities predict lexical-phonological and lexical-semantic abilities in children with and without SLI?

This study tested the predictions of the procedural deficit hypothesis by investigating the relationship between sequential statistical learning and two aspects of lexical ability, lexical-phonological and lexical-semantic, in children with and without specific language impairment (SLI). Participants included forty children (ages 8;5-12;3), twenty children with SLI and twenty with typical development. Children completed Saffran's statistical word segmentation task, a lexical-phonological access task (gating task), and a word definition task. Poor statistical learners were also poor at managing lexical-phonological competition during the gating task. However, statistical learning was not a significant predictor of semantic richness in word definitions. The ability to track statistical sequential regularities may be important for learning the inherently sequential structure of lexical-phonological, but not as important for learning lexical-semantic knowledge. Consistent with the procedural/declarative memory distinction, the brain networks associated with the two types of lexical learning are likely to have different learning properties.

Lexical and semantic age-of-acquisition effects on word naming in Spanish

We report a study of the factors that affect reading in Spanish, a language with a transparent orthography. Our focus was on the influence of lexical semantic knowledge in phonological coding. This effect would be predicted to be minimal in Spanish, according to some accounts of semantic effects in reading. We asked 25 healthy adults to name 2,764 mono- and multisyllabic words. As is typical for psycholinguistics, variables capturing critical word attributes were highly intercorrelated. Therefore, we used principal components analysis (PCA) to derive orthogonalized predictors from raw variables. The PCA distinguished components relating to (1) word frequency, age of acquisition (AoA), and familiarity; (2) word AoA, imageability, and familiarity; (3) word length and orthographic neighborhood size; and (4) bigram type and token frequency. Linear mixed-effects analyses indicated significant effects on reading due to each PCA component. Our observations confirm that oral reading in Spanish proceeds through spelling-sound mappings involving lexical and sublexical units. Importantly, our observations distinguish between the effect of lexical frequency (the impact of the component relating to frequency, AoA, and familiarity) and the effect of semantic knowledge (the impact of the component relating to AoA, imageability, and familiarity). Semantic knowledge influences word naming even when all the words being read have regular spelling-sound mappings.

Lexical-Semantic Knowledge about Adjectives is Preserved in Semantic Dementia: Implications for Theoretical Models of Semantic Memory

Lexical-Semantic Knowledge about Adjectives is Preserved in Semantic Dementia: Implications for Theoretical Models of Semantic Memory

Phonological memory in bilinguals and monolinguals

In the present study, we examined the effects of lexical-semantic knowledge and of difficulty level on phonological memory performance by monolingual adult English speakers and bilingual adult Korean-English speakers. The monolingual English speakers were more proficient in English than the bilingual speakers. All participants were tested on a range of phonological memory tasks in English. We manipulated the degree to which the phonological memory tasks involved lexical-semantic knowledge of English (word-span task, digit-span task, and nonword repetition task), as well as the difficulty level of the tasks. Results revealed that on the word-span task (highest level of lexical-semantic knowledge), monolinguals outperformed bilinguals at the easier levels of the task but bilinguals outperformed monolinguals at the more difficult levels of the task. For the digit-span and nonword repetition tasks, monolinguals outperformed bilinguals at the easier levels of the tasks, but the differences between the two groups vanished with the increase in the difficulty levels. Together, these results suggest that proficiency-based differences between monolingual and bilingual phonological memory performance depend on the degree to which the tasks rely on lexical-semantic knowledge and the difficulty level of the task.

Semantic knowledge fractionations: verbal propositions vs. perceptual input? Evidence from a child with Klinefelter syndrome

This paper addresses the relative independence of different types of lexical- and factually-based semantic knowledge in JM, a 9-year-old boy with Klinefelter syndrome (KS). JM was matched to typically developing (TD) controls on the basis of chronological age. Lexical-semantic knowledge was investigated for common noun (CN) and mathematical vocabulary items (MV). Factually-based semantic knowledge was investigated for general and number facts. For CN items, JM's lexical stores were of a normal size but the volume of correct ‘sensory feature’ semantic knowledge he generated within verbal item descriptions was significantly reduced. He was also significantly impaired at naming item descriptions and pictures, particularly for fruit and vegetables. There was also weak object decision for fruit and vegetables. In contrast, for MV items, JM's lexical stores were elevated, with no significant difference in the amount and type of correct semantic knowledge generated within verbal item descriptions and normal naming. JM's fact retrieval accuracy was normal for all types of factual knowledge. JM's performance indicated a dissociation between the representation of CN and MV vocabulary items during development. JM's preserved semantic knowledge of facts in the face of impaired semantic knowledge of vocabulary also suggests that factually-based semantic knowledge representation is not dependent on normal lexical-semantic knowledge during development. These findings are discussed in relation to the emergence of distinct semantic knowledge representations during development, due to differing degrees of dependency upon the acquisition and representation of semantic knowledge from verbal propositions and perceptual input.

An Approach to Cross-Lingual Textual Entailment using Online Machine Translation Systems

In this paper, we show an approach to cross–lingual textual entailment (CLTE) by using machine translation systems such as Bing Translator and Google Translate. We experiment with a wide variety of data sets to the task of textual Entailment (TE) and evaluate the contribution of an algorithm that expands a monolingual TE corpus that seems promising for the task of CLTE. We built a CLTE corpus and we report a procedure that can be used to create a CLTE corpus in any pair of languages. We also report the results obtained in our experiments with the three–way classification task for CLTE and we show that this result outperform the average score of RTE (Recognizing Textual Entailment) systems. Finally, we find that using WordNet as the only source of lexical–semantic knowledge it is possibly to build a system for CLTE, which achieves comparable results with the average score of RTE systems for both two–way and three–way tasks

Dissociations in mathematical knowledge: Case studies in Down’s syndrome and Williams syndrome

A study is reported of mathematical vocabulary and factual mathematical knowledge in PQ, a 22 year old with Down’s syndrome (DS) who has a verbal mental age (MA) of 9 years 2 months and ST, a 15 year old with Williams syndrome (WS) who has a verbal MA of 9 years 6 months, matched to typically developing controls. The number of mathematical words contained within PQ’s lexical stores was significantly reduced as reflected by performance on lexical decision. PQ was also impaired at both naming from descriptions and describing mathematical words. These results contrast with normal lexical decision and item descriptions for concrete words reported recently for PQ (Robinson and Temple, 2010). PQ’s recall of mathematical facts was also impaired, whilst his recall of general knowledge facts was normal. This performance in DS indicates a deficit in both lexical representation and semantic knowledge for mathematical words and mathematical facts.In contrast, ST, the teenager with WS had good accuracy on lexical decision, naming and generating definitions for mathematical words. This contrasted with the atypical performance with concrete words recently reported for ST (Robinson and Temple, 2009). Knowledge of addition facts and general knowledge facts was also unimpaired for ST, though knowledge of multiplication facts was weak.Together the cases form a double dissociation and provide support for the distinct representation of mathematical and concrete items within the lexical–semantic system during development. The dissociations between mathematical and general factual knowledge also indicate that different types of factual knowledge may be selectively impaired during development. There is further support for a modular structure within which mathematical vocabulary and mathematical knowledge have distinct representations. This supports the case for the independent representation of factual and language-based knowledge within the semantic system during development.

Sense Structure in Cube: Lexical Semantic Representation in Chinese Wordnet

The representation of lexical semantic knowledge has been one of the most important research topics in the field of computational lexical semantics. Among relevant lexical resources, the design architecture of Princeton WordNet is the most popular one. In this paper, however, we argue that the current synset scheme requires more extensions when applied to the analysis of deeper sense structure in Chinese Wordnet. Issues involved include the underlying structure of sense, meaning facet and their relations. Based on a large amount of empirical analysis of sense data, this paper proposes a fine-grained framework in representing lexical semantic knowledge for Chinese Wordnet, which we believe will be an important consideration for the envisioned cross-lingual global wordnet grid construction. The systematic polysemy patterns found among meaning facets can also be used as a human gold standard of hand-annotated data for metonymy resolution task.

Learning and maintaining new vocabulary in persons with aphasia: Two controlled case studies

Background: Novel word learning of persons with aphasia is little studied, even though a better understanding of learning processes would inform development of effective treatment strategies. Recent evidence suggests some remaining verbal learning capacity in persons with aphasia. Long-term maintenance of newly learned active vocabulary has not been reported previously in persons with aphasia. Aims: To explore learning and long-term maintenance of novel words in persons with aphasia. Methods & Procedures: Two English-speaking males with chronic anomic aphasia and two age-matched controls were taught novel names of 20 unfamiliar objects. Half of the words were taught with semantic information (definition) and half without. Participants were instructed to learn the names. The experiment included four training sessions, one post-training test and four follow-up tests administered 1 week, 4 weeks, 8 weeks, and 6 months post-training. We tested explicit learning of the new names through visual confrontation naming. In addition, incidental learning of semantic information was probed over the follow-up period. Outcomes & Results: The two participants with aphasia learned 6–8 of the 20 novel names during the training. However, this new vocabulary dissipated during the 6-month follow-up. As expected, the controls showed better performance both in acquisition and in maintenance of the new vocabulary over the follow-up period. As regards the accuracy of semantic information, the aphasic participant with semantic impairment demonstrated worse incidental learning of semantic information than controls and the participant with intact lexical semantics. Conclusions: Some new vocabulary can be acquired even in chronic aphasia but the ability to spontaneously retrieve the newly learned words gradually dissipates over the weeks following learning. Our results also indicate an interaction between the level of lexical-semantic processing skills and incidental learning of new lexical-semantic knowledge in aphasia.

Learning to Suggest Questions in Online Forums

Online forums contain interactive and semantically related discussions on various questions. Extracted question-answer archive is invaluable knowledge, which can be used to improve Question Answering services. In this paper, we address the problem of Question Suggestion, which targets at suggesting questions that are semantically related to a queried question. Existing bag-of-words approaches suffer from the shortcoming that they could not bridge the lexical chasm between semantically related questions. Therefore, we present a new framework to suggest questions, and propose the Topicenhanced Translation-based Language Model (TopicTRLM) which fuses both the lexical and latent semantic knowledge. Extensive experiments have been conducted with a large real world data set. Experimental results indicate our approach is very effective and outperforms other popular methods in several metrics.

A WordNet-based semantic approach to textual entailment and cross-lingual textual entailment

In this paper we explain how to build a recognizing textual entailment (RTE) system which only uses semantic similarity measures based on WordNet. We show how the widely used WordNet-based semantic measures can be generalized to build sentence level semantic metrics in order to be used in both mono-lingual and cross-lingual textual entailment. We experiment with a wide variety of RTE datasets and evaluate the contribution of an algorithm which expands the RTE monolingual corpus. Results achieved with this method yielded significant statistical differences when predicting RTE test sets. We provide an efficiency analysis of these metrics drawing some conclusions about their practical utility in recognizing textual entailment. We also analyze the cross-lingual textual entailment task, we create a bilingual English–Spanish corpus, and propose a procedure to create a cross-lingual textual entailment corpus for any pair of languages. Finally, we show that the proposed method is enough to build an average score RTE system in both monolingual and cross-lingual textual entailment, that uses semantic information from WordNet as the only source of lexical-semantic knowledge.

The representation of lexical-syntactic information: Evidence from syntactic and lexical retrieval impairments in aphasia

This study explored lexical-syntactic information – syntactic information that is stored in the lexicon – and its relation to syntactic and lexical impairments in aphasia. We focused on two types of lexical-syntactic information: predicate argument structure (PAS) of verbs (the number and types of arguments the verb selects) and grammatical gender of nouns. The participants were 17 Hebrew-speaking individuals with aphasia who had a syntactic deficit (agrammatism) or a lexical retrieval deficit (anomia) located at the semantic lexicon, the phonological output lexicon, or the phonological output buffer. After testing the participants’ syntactic and lexical retrieval abilities and establishing the functional loci of their deficits, we assessed their PAS and grammatical gender knowledge. This assessment included sentence completion, sentence production, sentence repetition, and grammaticality judgment tasks. The participants’ performance on these tests yielded several important dissociations. Three agrammatic participants had impaired syntax but unimpaired PAS knowledge. Three agrammatic participants had impaired syntax but unimpaired grammatical gender knowledge. This indicates that lexical-syntactic information is represented separately from syntax, and can be spared even when syntax at the sentence level, such as embedding and movement are impaired. All 5 individuals with phonological output buffer impairment and all 3 individuals with phonological output lexicon impairment had preserved lexical-syntactic knowledge. These selective impairments indicate that lexical-syntactic information is represented at a lexical stage prior to the phonological lexicon and the phonological buffer. Three participants with impaired PAS (aPASia) and impaired grammatical gender who showed intact lexical-semantic knowledge indicate that the lexical-syntactic information is represented separately from the semantic lexicon. This led us to conclude that lexical-syntactic information is stored in a separate syntactic lexicon. A double dissociation between PAS and grammatical gender impairments indicated that different types of lexical-syntactic information are represented separately in this syntactic lexicon.

Definitions versus categorization: assessing the development of lexico‐semantic knowledge in Williams syndrome

Williams syndrome (WS) is associated with relatively strong language abilities despite mild to moderate intellectual disability, particularly when language is indexed by vocabulary. The aim of the study was twofold: (1) to investigate whether reported lexical anomalies in WS can be explained with reference to anomalous semantic development; and (2) to assess whether receptive vocabulary skills in WS, a relative strength, are underpinned by commensurate semantic knowledge. The development of lexical-semantic knowledge was investigated in 45 typically developing individuals (chronological age range = 5-10 years, mental age range = 5-13 years) and 15 individuals with WS (chronological age range = 12-50 years, mental age range = 4-17 years) by means of (1) a categorization task and (2) a definitions task, which was expected to make additional metacognitive demands. At younger ages, the performance level of typically developing individuals and individuals with WS did not differ on the definitions task. However, the WS group's ability to define words fell away from the level predicted by the typically developing group at older ages, as more sophisticated definitions were expected. The results of the categorization task indicated that individuals with WS had less lexical-semantic knowledge than expected given their level of receptive vocabulary, although from this lower level the knowledge then developed at a similar rate to that found in typical development. It is concluded, first, that conventional vocabulary measures may overestimate lexical-semantic knowledge in WS; and, second, concerns about the metacognitive demands of the definitions task when used with atypical populations may be well founded.

Verbal short-term memory reflects the organization of long-term memory: Further evidence from short-term memory for emotional words

Many studies suggest that long-term lexical–semantic knowledge is an important determinant of verbal short-term memory (STM) performance. This study explored the impact of emotional valence on word immediate serial recall as a further lexico-semantic long-term memory (LTM) effect on STM. This effect is particularly interesting for the study of STM–LTM interactions since emotional words not only activate specific lexico-semantic LTM features but also capture attentional resources, and hence allow for the study of both LTM and attentional factors on STM tasks. In Experiments 1 and 2, we observed a robust effect of emotional valence on pure list recall in both young and elderly adults, with higher recall performance for emotional lists as opposed to neutral lists, as predicted by increased LTM support for emotional words. In Experiments 3 and 4 however, using mixed lists, it was the lists containing a minority of emotional words which led to higher recall performance over lists containing a majority of emotional words. This was predicted by a weak version of the attentional capture account. These data add new evidence to the theoretical position that LTM knowledge is a critical determinant of STM performance, with further, list type dependent intervention of attentional factors.

Contextual effect in people with Williams syndrome

This study was aimed at investigating the semantic integration ability of people with WS in building up a coherent and gist theme from the context of presented sentences. Previous studies have indicated rich lexical semantic knowledge and typical semantic priming in this clinical group, but atypical brainwave patterns have been reported in studies of semantic comprehension. An integration difficulty hypothesis of merging meanings into sentences was proposed to explain the discrepancy (Tyler et al., 1997). In this study, this hypothesis was examined by means of proposition integration. Participants were presented sentences embedded with different numbers of propositions under various scenarios. Successful integration of semantically related propositions under same scenario was demonstrated by high false alarm recognition to sentences with more propositions (a maximum of four in this study). The results revealed that healthy adults showed integration ability when the number of propositions in a sentence were more than three, with increased false alarm rates and confidence ratings, whereas people with WS showed no differences in sentences with increased proposition numbers. Typically developing children controls confined recognition phenomenon to sentences carrying more than two propositions. Hence, it was concluded that contextual effects in terms of proposition integration was a gradual development from childhood into adulthood and a deviant development in people with WS.

Expert‐Built and Collaboratively Constructed Lexical Semantic Resources

AbstractKnowledge about words, their meanings, and their relations to other words contained in lexical semantic resources is of particular interest for the automatic processing of human language. In the last decades, expert‐built lexical semantic resources such as WordNet have been utilized in a vast number of natural language processing (NLP) tasks. Recently, collaboratively constructed resources such as the online encyclopedia Wikipedia with its exceptional scale and Wiktionary, a combination of dictionary and thesaurus, have been discovered as valuable substitutes for expert‐built resources. In this study, we first introduce diverse types of lexical semantic resources with respect to their content and structure. We identify the differences between expert‐built and collaboratively constructed resources and compare WordNet, Wiktionary, and Wikipedia. We provide a comprehensive overview of the lexical semantic knowledge therein and discuss their assets and drawbacks. Finally, we review work on orchestrating different resources in order to combine their strengths and explore their use in major NLP applications.