Level Of Syntax Research Articles

Intentional First Order Logic for Strong-AI Generation of Robots

Neuro-symbolic AI attempts to integrate neural and symbolic architectures in a manner that addresses strengths and weaknesses of each, in a complementary fashion, in order to support robust strong AI capable of reasoning, learning, and cognitive modeling. We consider the robot’s four-levels knowledge structure: The syntax level of particular natural language (Italian, French, etc..), two universal language levels: its semantic logic structure (based on virtual predicates of FOL and logic connectives), and its corresponding conceptual PRP structure level which universally represents the composite mining of FOL formulae grounded on the last robot’s neuro system level. Therefore, this paper we consider the intentional First Order Logic as a symbolic architecture of modern robots, able to use natural languages to communicate with humans and to reason about their own knowledge with self-reference and abstraction language property

Синтаксические особенности правовой коммуникации (на примере англоязычных завещаний)

The investigation focuses on the study of syntactic means used in English wills. The contribution demonstrates the expressive potential of syntactic means; analyses means of minor and major syntax used in the genre under consideration. The paper reveals the frequency of their use. It also considers the question of appropriateness of expressive syntactic means for legal discourse and describes their functional-stylistic features.
 The research has allowed to outline the features of the syntactic arrange-ment of wills and to single out the most typical syntactic structures (nominative and verbal word combinations on the level of the minor syntax, complex sentences on the level of the major syntax). The contribution has also re-vealed syntactic expressive means used in English wills (inversion, syn-tactic repetition, including parallel construction, and polysyndeton) and has described their functional-stylistic features. The investigation has defined the functional status of the expressive syntactic means which encompasses clear and accurate expounding of the content and preservation of the text structure (which has shaped as a result of the historical development of the genre). The methodology of research include generalisation, description, definitive analysis, linguostylistic analysis, and context analysis.

Contrastive Graph Representations for Logical Formulas Embedding

Currently, the non-transparent computing process of deep learning has become a significant reason hindering its further development. The Neural-Symbolic (NS) system formed by integrating logic rules into neural networks has attracted increasing attention owing to its direct interpretability. Embedding symbolic logical formulas into a low-dimensional continuous space provides an effective way for the NS system. However, current studies are all constrained by the modeling ability for its syntactic structure and fail to preserve the intrinsic semantics in embeddings, which causes poor performance on downstream reasoning tasks. To this end, this paper proposes a novel method of <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Con</b> trastive <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">G</b> raph <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">R</b> epresentations (ConGR) for logical formulas embedding. First, to improve the modeling ability for the syntactic structure, ConGR introduces a densely connected graph convolutional network (GCN) with an attention mechanism to process syntax parsing graphs of formulas. In this way, discriminative local and global embeddings of formulas are obtained at the syntax level. Second, the contrastive instances (positive or negative) for each anchor formula are generated by the transformation under the guidance of logical properties. To preserve semantic information, two types of contrast, global-local and global-global, are carried out to refine formula embeddings. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ConGR obtains superior performance against state-of-the-art baselines on entailment checking and premise selection datasets.

The Study of Syntactic Error Review of Editorial News Titled Politics is Getting Hotter

The background of this research is the discovery of errors in the Indonesian language in online news writing. The most obvious error is at the syntax level. Therefore, this study aims to explain the form of language errors in the field of syntax contained in the online news portal Sindonews in the editorial news text entitled "Politics Getting Hot". This study uses a qualitative method with a descriptive approach. To obtain data, the observation technique was chosen as a data collection method. Furthermore, the data were analyzed using the distribution method. The results of the research regarding the analysis of language errors in the field of syntax contained in the editorial news include errors in coherence, borrowed words, sentence effectiveness, unity, and sentence logic that do not match. This study reinforces the paradigm that online news portals ignore the principles of Indonesian language syntax.

Zur Syntax der polnischen Leichten Sprache

Summary Easy Language as a means for communicative accessibility is designed for use by people with communication impairments and low literacy skills in general, e. g. persons with intellectual disability, functional illiterates or individuals with dementia. Compared to standard written Polish, the complexity of this variety is reduced on all linguistic levels. The present article deals with the level of syntax and follows on from a previous study concerning the syntax of Easy-to-read Russian. It aims to contribute to the linguistically substantiated elaboration of Easy-to-read Polish by submitting suggestions for avoiding complex syntactic structures. Various subgroups of clause constructions and complex sentences are included. It turns out that the endeavour to make sentences as short, simple and comprehensible as possible is quite complex and certainly not easy. The presented suggestions await further discussion among linguists as well as systematic testing with target groups of Easy-to-read Polish. Since Easy Language has been implemented in Polish legislation, it is to be expected that this fact will result in an amplification of Easy-to-read text offers in the future. Therefore, there is a need for more intensive research in the field of Easy Language that can be seen as crucial in enabling people with disabilities and other persons with reading difficulties to fully enjoy the fundamental right to information and participation in social life.

Stylistic analysis on Douglas Malloch�s �Be the Best of Whatever You Are� poem

The current study aims to analyze the stylistic devices and describe their realization in constructing the theme and meaning in Douglas Malloch�s �Be the Best of Whatever You Are� poem. This descriptive qualitative study applied critical content analysis as an approach. Leech &amp; Short�s (2007) stylistic theory was adopted as an analytical tool to examine the levels of language (style) in the poem. Based on the findings, there are 67 items found in the phonological level, 60 items found in the graphological level, 7 items found in the morphological level, 151 items found in the lexical levels, 30 items found in the syntax level, and lastly, there are 13 items found in the semantic level. The stylistic realization has revealed that Malloch uses varied linguistic elements in constructing the theme of this particular poem. Importantly, Malloch, through this poem, conveys a message of hope and motivation for people of all ages to always remember that a complex reality and negative aspects in life can be juxtaposed with the positive ones such as being the best version of ourselves and share it to the world.

Linguo-stylistic analysis of the foreign language text of publicistic style as a method of forming public consciousness

The article indicates the relevance of the topic under consideration, due to modern trends in the world of limitless information space. The authors, relying on the requirements outlined in the State obligatory standards of higher and post-graduate education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, consider it necessary to form the public consciousness of students. In this regard, it is necessary to be attentive to information received in a foreign language, in addition, it is important to teach students an analytical and critical attitude to various media information. The method of linguo-stylistic analysis of the text of a publicistic speech is considered as one of the important methods for public consciousness’ formation, the demonstration of the effectiveness of which is the goal of the article’s authors. To achieve this goal, the following tasks are solved: analysis of scientific, pedagogical and methodological literature, determination of an effective algorithm of actions in the linguo-stylistic analysis of the text of a publicistic style of speech, development of indicators and levels of skills to analyze the text. The authors highlight the novelty of the study, which lies in the fact that for the first time the issues of the impact of the linguistic-stylistic analysis method of a foreign language text on the formation of the students’ public consciousness. Within the framework of this article, communicative and structural-logical analyzes of the text are described in detail. The authors also consider the issues of linguistic features of publicistic style texts at the level of vocabulary, morphology and syntax. The highest level of correct text perception is the interpretation of the text in the form of an essay-reasoning, essay, oral review. Experimental work was carried out with students of the specialty "Foreign language: two foreign languages", which gave positive results. The authors applied theoretical and empirical research methods: analysis, systematization and generalization of scientific, scientific-pedagogical, methodical literature, questioning, testing, conversation, experiment. Keywords: mass media, public consciousness, publicistic style of speech, text, linguo-stylistic analysis.

PARSEME Meets Universal Dependencies: Getting on the Same Page in Representing Multiword Expressions

Multiword expressions (MWEs) are challenging and pervasive phenomena whose idiosyncratic properties show notably at the levels of lexicon, morphology, and syntax. Thus, they should best be annotated jointly with morphosyntax. We discuss two multilingual initiatives, Universal Dependencies and PARSEME, addressing these annotation layers in cross-lingually unified ways. We compare the annotation principles of these initiatives with respect to MWEs, and we put forward a roadmap towards their gradual unification. The expected outcomes are more consistent treebanking and higher universality in modeling idiosyncrasy.

Early Vedic compounds

Abstract Despite a longstanding tradition of studies in Sanskrit compounds, a description that enables comparisons in cross-linguistic perspective has not yet been worked out. The present article follows classificatory criteria introduced by Bisetto &amp; Scalise (2005, 2009) and sketches a typology of compounds in the most archaic variety of Sanskrit, Early Vedic, as transmitted by the RigVeda. Analyzing compounds on the basis of the grammatical relations holding between their constituents provides a classification into coordinate, subordinate, and attributive compounds, with the endocentric/exocentric divide cutting across all classes. In order to identify the position of Early Vedic compounds on the syntax-morphology continuum, the article investigates the degree of cohesiveness at the level of morphology, prosody, syntax, and semantics. With this respect, the RigVeda offers a varied picture where relics of archaic, less cohesive forms occur side-to-side with more productive and word-like ones.

ՄԻՋՈՒԿԱՅԻՆ ՆԱԽԱԴԱՍՈՒԹՅՈՒՆՆԵՐԻ ԵՎ ՆՐԱՆՑ ՓՈԽԱԿԵՐՊՆԵՐԻ ՇԱՐԱՀՅՈՒՍԱԿԱՆ ԳՈՐԾԱՌՈՒՅԹՆԵՐԸ ՀԱՅԵՐԵՆՈՒՄ/ TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE ARMENIAN LANGUAGE/ СИНТАКСИЧЕСКИЕ ФУНКЦИИ ЯДЕРНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЙ И ИХ ТРАНСФОРМАЦИЙ В АРМЯНСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

Transformations of basic and nuclear sentences in the Armenian language, i.e. phrases and compound words at the level of syntax perform a similar function, acting as the main members of the sentence, as well as attributes to the members expressed by the substantive. In the process of transformation, certain features are manifested in compound words, which appear in the form of complex and derived formations, and the derivatives of the formation can be of two types: prefixal and suffixal ones. Some suffixes correspond to certain case endings. In the transformation by the model of sentence-phrase-compound word, the function of transformation is performed by the verb, at the level of the phrase acting as the main member of the participial construction, and as part of a compound word – as a verbal base and the main component. The syntactic commonality of nuclear sentences and their transformations is due to the logic of the transition: when the expression plan of a language unit changes, its content is preserved, which implies functional identity at the syntax level.

Bilingual Corpus-based Hybrid POS Tagger for Low Resource Tamil Language: A Statistical approach

In India, most of the Science and Technology resources available are in English. Developing an Automatic Language Translation Engine from English (source language) to Tamil (target language) is very essential for the people who need to get technical resources in their native language. The challenges in designing such engines using Natural Language Processing (NLP) tools include Lexical, Structural, and Syntax level ambiguity. To solve these challenges, the development of a Part-Of-Speech (POS) tagger is essential. The Verb-Framed languages like Tamil, Japanese, and many languages in Romance, Semitic, and Mayan languages families have high morphological richness but lack either a large volume of annotated corpora or manually constructed linguistic resources for building POS tagger. Moreover, the Tamil Language has a low resource, high word sense ambiguity, and word-free order form giving rise to challenges in designing Tamil POS taggers. In this paper, we postulate a Hybrid POS tagger algorithm for Tamil Language using Cross-Lingual Transformation Learning Techniques. It is a novel Mining-based algorithm (MT), which finds equivalent words of Tamil in English on less volume of English-Tamil bilingual unannotated parallel corpus. To enhance the performance of MT, we developed Tamil language-specific auxiliary algorithms such as Keyword-based tagging algorithm (KT) and Verb pattern-based tagging algorithm (VT). We also developed a Unique pair occurrence-tagging algorithm (UT) to find the one-time occurrence of Tamil-English pair words. Our experiments show that by improving Context-based Bilingual Corpus to Bilingual parallel corpus and after leaving one-time occurrence words, the proposed Hybrid POS tagger can predict 81.15% words, with 73.51% accuracy and 90.50% precision. Evaluations prove our algorithms can generate language resources, which can improve the performance of NLP tasks in Tamil.

Industry 4.0 Technologies as an Obsolescence Mitigator for Testing of Mechatronic Systems in Aviation

Companies building products with a usage phase of 25 years and more, have suffered from obsolescence for decades. Software and hardware components inside of the supporting systems, such as avionics test benches, are particularly affected. They consist of components built for 3–7 years but expected to operate for decades. The lack of standardized, open and modular systems for special timing constraints increase the pressure and impede the interoperability in this field. Industry 4.0 systems offer exactly this, but do not support aviation standards. The research in this article aims to show that it is possible to use widespread Industry 4.0 standards and technology at the field level to achieve transferability and maintainability in the operation of test benches. This article describes an implemented and evaluated proof of concept of the implementation of an industrial ethernet standard EtherCAT for the ARINC 429 I/O for an aviation test bench. As a baseline, market available EtherCAT components were evaluated and selected. For the client development, standard components for the EtherCAT logic and ARINC 429 were used. Additionally, the full interoperability at the syntax level, was achieved by implementing a configuration approach of the I/O, in order to encode and decode the messages. The evaluation was performed using an Airbus A350-1000 test bench for secondary flight controls—namely the HighLift system.

A corpus-based approach to Chinese English study——Pinning down the ‘Chineseness’ and implications for creative writing in English in China

ABSTRACT There has been limited research on Chinese English literature (CEL) in the domain of contact literatures. This article reports on a study of a representative Chinese English (CE) literary work well received by a worldwide audience – Qiu Xiaolong’s Enigma of China. With the aim of exploring CE by analysing the unique ‘Chineseness’ in this CE literary work from the paradigms of corpus linguistics and sociolinguistics, the language innovations and sociocultural meanings embedded in different levels of the work are examined. Further, by adopting a corpus-based approach and conducting keyword analysis, a number of language innovations were identified. These included the use of innovative hybrid compounds at the lexis level, the use of hybrid Chinese sentences of parallelism at the syntax level, and the use of discourses on political ideology and employment of ancient Chinese poems at the level of discourse pragmatics. It is argued that these language innovations are manifestations of a transfer of traditional Chinese culture norms and political ideology. The question of how to integrate CE corpus into courses on English creative writing in China is also discussed.

On the Deviating Effect of the English Translations of Rhetorical Movie Lines --- A Case Study of Hi, Mom

Lines are considered the main means used by scriptwriters to show plots, depict characters and embody themes. Various figures of speech are employed in lines to enhance their expressiveness and functions by deviating from zero degree as a base point. Taking the movie Hi, Mom, this paper analyzes the deviating effect of the English translations of rhetorical lines at the four levels of morphology, syntax, semantics and logic. According to the analysis, the use of figures of speech in these English lines can achieve the same deviating effect as that of rhetorical Chinese lines; on the other hand, the original deviating effect will be absent from the translations without the application of rhetorical means. Therefore, it is better for translators to adopt rhetorical devices when translating rhetorical lines, which will play a vital role in the success of movies in overseas markets.

On the Deviating Effect of the English Translations of Rhetorical Movie Lines --- A Case Study of Hi, Mom

Lines are considered the main means used by scriptwriters to show plots, depict characters and embody themes. Various figures of speech are employed in lines to enhance their expressiveness and functions by deviating from zero degree as a base point. Taking the movie Hi, Mom, this paper analyzes the deviating effect of the English translations of rhetorical lines at the four levels of morphology, syntax, semantics and logic. According to the analysis, the use of figures of speech in these English lines can achieve the same deviating effect as that of rhetorical Chinese lines; on the other hand, the original deviating effect will be absent from the translations without the application of rhetorical means. Therefore, it is better for translators to adopt rhetorical devices when translating rhetorical lines, which will play a vital role in the success of movies in overseas markets.

Syntactic prediction in L2 learners: evidence from English disjunction processing

Abstract This study examined the extent to which second language (L2) learners’ syntactic prediction resembles or differs from native speakers’ and the role of L2 proficiency in this process. An experimental group of 135 Chinese learners of English and a control group of 58 English native speakers participated in a phrase-by-phrase self-paced reading task where the experimental sentences were contrastive in whether the DP disjunction was preceded by either or not. To ensure that the participants had sufficient knowledge about the target stimuli, they were asked to additionally judge the acceptability of the experimental sentences. The results showed that like native speakers, L2 learners read the critical region consisting of “or” and a DP disjunct faster when it was preceded by either compared to when either was absent. In addition, this effect of the presence versus absence of either spilled over to the post-critical region. Moreover, L2 proficiency was not found to robustly modulate this process. It is concluded that L2 learners, like native speakers, can make predictions at the level of syntax.

The Adaptation Features and Text Reconstruction in Translating Grand Canal Poems into English

The English and Chinese versions of the Grand Canal poems have different adaptation features, which have an influence on the text reconstruction of the English versions of the Grand Canal poems. This study analyzes the pragmatic adaptation features of the English versions of the Grand Canal poems in terms linguistic choices and non-linguistic choices with the representative works of the English and Chinese versions of the Grand Canal poems as the corpus. The study finds that at the level of linguistic choices, the English versions of the Grand Canal poems is, to a large extent, adaptive to the current communicative purpose of the Grand Canal culture expressed in the original Chinese versions, but at the level of non-linguistic choices, it is, to a little extent, adaptive to the above communicative purpose. Therefore, the practice of translating Grand Canal poems into English needs to be improved in terms of linguistic choices at the level of vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, as well as non-linguistic choices at the level of state of mind, moods and cultural image, so as to reconstruct English versions of Grand Canal poems that are adaptive adequately and fully to the pragmatic features of poems expressed in the Chinese versions and the needs of target readers of English versions.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DISCOURSE OF RESISTANCE IN NGŨGĨ WA THIONG'O’S A GRAIN OF WHEAT AND MULK RAJ ANAND’S UNTOUCHABLE

The rationale behind this study is to analyze the discourse of the selected works of the new literature authors in English from the aspect of resistance, and the variety of English in the writings of various new literature authors to find out the power game and locate the independency of Indian writing in English. In addition to this, it can also be found out the changes English language went through in these selected works at the level of lexis and syntax. The voice in the works of these writers concerning their existence, inner voice and their struggle for freedom is also the area for an in-depth analysis. It is also observed that these authors also address the social issues and bring out the enormity of the situation of the exploited, subjugated, and the oppressed classes through a clever mixture of art and reality. The essays of the authors Against Interpretation, Susan Sontag Literature and Society, F R Leavis, Myth, Fiction and Displacement, Northrope Frye, Poetry, Thought, and Language, Paul Valery very well exhibit the ideas of the post-colonial authors.

On the oppositions that underlie the distinctions displayed by Russian causal clauses

Abstract This article studies Russian causal clauses employing formal contrasts that causal clauses manifest crosslinguistically. I explore two approaches that have been proposed to account for such contrasts: the coordination-subordination approach and the approach assuming that causal clauses represent different classes of adverbial clauses that differ in their degree of syntactic integration with the host clause. It is argued that the Russian data cannot be consistently accounted for unless a combination of the two approaches is applied. The analysis also reveals that the degrees of syntactic integration encoded by Russian causal clauses are different from those claimed for German causal clauses by previous research. Thus, while the degree of syntactic integration proves to be a valid parameter to compare systems of causal clauses crosslinguistically, its specific realizations may vary. Furthermore, the juxtaposition of the two approaches poses the question as to what the difference is between syntactically non-integrated adverbial clauses and coordinated clauses. I tentatively suggest that they too differ in terms of the degree of integration, but this difference belongs to the level of information packaging in discourse and not to the level of syntax.

Uralic typology in the light of a new comprehensive dataset

AbstractThis paper presents theUralic Areal Typology Online(UraTyp 1.0), a typological dataset of 35 Uralic languages and a total of 360 features, mainly covering the levels of morphology, syntax, and phonology. The features belong to two different datasets: 195 features’ definitions originate from the Grambank (GB) database, developed for comparison of world language typology, whereas 165 features (UT) have been designed specifically to describe the typological variation within the Uralic language family. We present a series of analyses of the dataset demonstrating its scope and possibilities. The complete data set correctly identifies the main Uralic subgroups in a Principal Components Analysis, whereas GB data alone is insufficiently granular to detect this family-internal structure. Similar analyses limited to various typological subdomains also give variable results. A model-based admixture analysis identifies four distinct areas of historical interaction: Saami, Finnic, the Volga area and Ob-Ugric.