Speech Level Research Articles

Effect of boost articulation therapy (BArT) on intelligibility in adults with dysarthria.

BackgroundThe articulatory accuracy of patients with dysarthria is one of the most affected speech dimensions with a high impact on speech intelligibility. Behavioural treatments of articulation can either involve direct or indirect approaches. The latter have been thoroughly investigated and are generally appreciated for their almost immediate effects on articulation and intelligibility. The number of studies on (short‐term) direct articulation therapy is limited.AimsTo investigate the effects of short‐term, boost articulation therapy (BArT) on speech intelligibility in patients with chronic or progressive dysarthria and the effect of severity of dysarthria on the outcome.Methods & ProceduresThe study consists of a two‐group pre‐/post‐test design to assess speech intelligibility at phoneme and sentence level and during spontaneous speech, automatic speech and reading a phonetically balanced text. A total of 17 subjects with mild to severe dysarthria participated in the study and were randomly assigned to either a patient‐tailored, intensive articulatory drill programme or an intensive minimal pair training. Both training programmes were based on the principles of motor learning. Each training programme consisted of five sessions of 45 min completed within one week.Outcomes & ResultsFollowing treatment, a statistically significant increase of mean group intelligibility was shown at phoneme and sentence level, and in automatic sequences. This was supported by an acoustic analysis that revealed a reduction in formant centralization ratio. Within specific groups of severity, large and moderate positive effect sizes with Cohen's d were demonstrated.Conclusions & ImplicationsBArT successfully improves speech intelligibility in patients with chronic or progressive dysarthria at different levels of the impairment. What this paper addsWhat is already known on the subject Behavioural treatment of articulation in patients with dysarthria mainly involves indirect strategies, which have shown positive effects on speech intelligibility. However, there is limited evidence on the short‐term effects of direct articulation therapy at the segmental level of speech. This study investigates the effectiveness of BArT on speech intelligibility in patients with chronic or progressive dysarthria at all severity levels. What this paper adds to existing knowledge The intensive and direct articulatory therapy programmes developed and applied in this study intend to reduce the impairment instead of compensating it. This approach results in a significant improvement of speech intelligibility at different dysarthria severity levels in a short period of time while contributing to exploit and develop all available residual motor skills in persons with dysarthria. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The improvements in intelligibility demonstrate the effectiveness of a BArT at the segmental level of speech. This makes it to be considered a suitable approach in the treatment of patients with chronic or progressive dysarthria.

Improving the level of development of speech competence of students in higher educational institutions through the implementation of the author’s program

The developed method was tested at the Moscow State Regional University. As a result of its testing, the authors identified the reasons for the development of students ‘speech competence and described the necessary methods to improve its level. The analysis of the obtained data showed that in the experimental group, the level of development of speech competence after the implementation of the program for the formation of speech competence of students significantly increased in comparison with the results obtained in the control group. These data demonstrate a gradual change in values in the direction of improving the level of speech and language training of students from the first year to the third. In the course of the study, a pattern was formulated, which consists in the fact that the level of speech competence depends more on the creation of the necessary conditions for the professionalization of speech activity. The author’s program widely uses texts of a professional nature, as well as tasks aimed at developing skills and abilities to work with analytical information, with professional service documentation, compiled mainly in official business, scientific styles. The presented didactic material for classes is mainly compiled from professional texts in order to familiarize students with the specifics of these texts and develop skills and abilities to work with such materials.

Комплексная диагностика развития детей 6-7 лет и оценка рисков дезадаптации к школе. Сообщение I.

The article describes the complex method of diagnosing the development of children 6-7 years, which allows to determine the level of socio-communicative, cognitive, speech, artistic and physical development necessary for successful adaptation to school and the formation of basic school skills: reading and writing. The importance of diagnostics for the year before the start of school to determine the risks of maladjustment and school difficulties. The article shows the importance of diagnostics for the year before the start of school to determine the risks of failure of adaptation and school difficulties. Analysis of the diagnostic results allows adult to build an individual trajectory of development necessary for each child.

Cuvântul rostit de actor. De la cuvântul scris la cuvântul celuilalt

Exceeding the level of everyday speech, the word spoken by the actor on stage aims to become a superior form of expression. Thus, we will follow a double approach of the word starting from the original word found in the dramatic text. On the one hand, we will look for that word which, taken from the written plan, is uttered following an act of creation, and the other hand, by inner assumption, we will follow the word that exceeds the level of auditory pleasure and is uttered under the imprint of a internal content.

Development of leadership abilities as a factor of positive socialization among senior preschool children

The development of leadership abilities among senior preschool children is an important component of the general, fundamental task solved within the educational field of social and communicative personality development at the early stages of education. The basic concepts related to the nature of children's leadership are leadership as a type of special giftedness, a wide range of personality traits and a quality of any child that manifests itself under certain conditions. The qualities of preschool children with a pronounced leadership potential are: the desire for dominance, initiative, a high level of mental development, speech and behavioral activity, emotionality (impressionability, impulsivity, lability), adequate self-esteem, independence, the ability to invent and organize different games. Based on an analytical review of scientific sources on the issue of child leadership we define leadership abilities in the senior preschool age as an integral dynamic personal education developing in the joint activity of a child with peers under the guidance of an adult, whose structure is formed by the unity of cognitive, emotional-volitional, activity-creative and evaluative-reflective components. A structural model of leadership abilities of a preschooler is presented. The main conditions for the development of leadership abilities in senior preschoolers are the inclusion of children in various types of joint activities and the guidance of a teacher. Developed leadership abilities are an important indicator of positive socialization of a child’s personality.

Document-Level Neural TTS Using Curriculum Learning and Attention Masking

Speech synthesis has been developed to the level of natural human-level speech synthesized through an attention-based end-to-end text-to-speech synthesis (TTS) model. However, it is difficult to generate attention when synthesizing a text longer than the trained length or document-level text. In this paper, we propose a neural speech synthesis model that can synthesize more than 5 min of speech at once using training data comprising a short speech of less than 10 s. This model can be used for tasks that need to synthesize document-level speech at a time, such as a singing voice synthesis (SVS) system or a book reading system. First, through curriculum learning, our model automatically increases the length of the speech trained for each epoch, while reducing the batch size so that long sentences can be trained with a limited graphics processing unit (GPU) capacity. During synthesis, the document-level text is synthesized using only the necessary contexts of the current time step and masking the rest through an attention-masking mechanism. The Tacotron2-based speech synthesis model and duration predictor were used in the experiment, and the results showed that proposed method can synthesize document-level speech with overwhelmingly lower character error rate, and attention error rates, and higher quality than those obtained using the existing model.

Особенности понимания речи у детей с расстройствами аутистического спектра младшего школьного возраста

The objective of the present study is to investigate the relationship between the receptive language, and the index of non-verbal intelligence and the level of severity of autistic disorders in primary-school-aged children with Autism spectrum disorder. One of the main areas influenced by autistic disorders is communication. Therefore, the study of the language abilities of such children and factors that affect them provides a better approach to the therapy and education. The sample included 50 children aged 7–11 years diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. Children were tested using the KORABLIK method (basic linguistic skills), the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC-II) or the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children ― Third Edition (WISC-III) (non-verbal intelligence), the Autism Diagnosis Observation Schedule ― Second Edition (ADOS-II) (autistic traits). The results support the hypothesis of the relationship between receptive language skills, the index of non-verbal intelligence, and symptoms of autism. The severity of autistic traits is negatively associated with some phonological and lexical levels of the receptive speech, as well as with understanding of discourse. The non-verbal intelligence index is positively associated with speech comprehension at all levels. A specific feature of receptive language in children with Autism spectrum disorder aged 7–11 years is the uneven development, which is associated with the severity of autistic traits and is not associated with the intelligence level.

«СПАТЬ ХОЧЕТСЯ» А.П. ЧЕХОВА: ПОЭТИКА, «ОПРАВДЫВАЮЩАЯ» ВАРЬКУ

The author of the article proves that by means of poetics (at the spatio-temporal, motivic, subject-object, plot-compositional, speech and other levels), the deliberate involvement of physiological (the cry of an infant as a strong stimulus, the lack of description and concretization of the child) and medical data (receptive and cognitive disorders in humans with insufficient sleep) Chekhov “justifies” his heroine. Forcing the severity of the heroine’s emotional state, coupled with a change in the chronotope (night, the owners’ room; day, the owners’ apartment, front door, shop; night, the owners’ room), as a result, demonstrates an affective state (madness) that makes Var’ka insane at the time of the crime. Chronologically, Chekhov pushes the murder event to the very end of the work, gradually arousing in the reader empathy for Var’ka, for example, through a narrator who can see events through her eyes, and the specifics of the speech addressed to the heroine (orders, threats, insults) and of that coming from her (automatic purring lullaby). Within the work, in the course of the plot, the space of the heroine’s dream and reality dwindles the author thickens her emotional state; half-reality stratifies into the reality and dream, takes up more and more space and time and gradually turns into madness. The real, albeit indirect, murderers of the child are his parents.

Вивчення розвитку діалогічного мовлення у дошкільників з розладами аутистичного спектру

The article analyzes the research on the diagnosis of speech development among children with autism spectrum disorders. It is taken into account that a comprehensive idea of the state and features of a child's formation speech as a means of communication can be obtained only in the process of a comprehensive examination and analysis of his or her speech activity. It is proved that the majority of diagnostic techniques are not suitable for use in diagnosing of the level of speech and communication development of autistic children. It is noted that to assess the formation of dialogic speech of preschool children with autism, there are very few methodological developments, they are not perfect, and they should be adapted to the characteristics of each child. Diagnosis of the level of development of dialogic communication is to determine the level of formation of actual dialogic skills: the initiation of a communicative act, the ability to support and complete the conversation, coherence and logic of expression, intonation of dialogue; ability to communicate in pairs, groups, teams; ability to address with a request, a message, a demand, a greeting, to meet, to apologize, to thank, to say goodbye, to attract attention; an ability to use non-verbal means of communication; ability to ask questions, to use replica-stamps in speech, knowledge of dialogue etiquette and grammatical correctness. In accordance with the outlined indicators, a selection of diagnostic techniques aimed at determining the state of development of dialogic speech in children with autism spectrum disorders was carried through. The levels of development of dialogic speech in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders are described: low, medium, sufficient (which was not recorded among the respondent. All children have had echolalia, speech stereotypes, autodialogues recorded, which indicates a lack of understanding of what they are told, misunderstanding of requirements, disability to form answers or reluctance of communication in general. Analysis of the results of the study showed that misunderstanding of speech, of the meaning of nonverbal means of communication by children with autism spectrum disorders and the inability to initiate conversation leads to refusal to interact with other people, and their alienation.

ЛИНГВОКУЛЬТУРНЫЕ МАРКЕРЫ ТЕКСТА

The aim of the research is to provide a comprehensive linguocultural characteristic of a folk tale. The research is based on the material of the Irish Fairy and Folk Tales tale anthology, compiled and edited by W. B. Yeats. The research results allow for a suggestion that linguocultural markers are to be found on both ideologic-compositional and speech levels of a text. Thus, the motives of Christian morality form the basis for reciprocal altruism which is the conceptual entity of Irish folk tales. The tale structure is often linear and consists of a short introduction, the main part and the climax turning into a short sharp denouement. Irish folk tales are often a metaphor for the rite of passage. The didactic function of tales consists in demonstrating the possibilities of sin purge through their recognition and repentance. Tales also set social rules and norms. Culture-specific language units encountered in the texts of Irish folk tales belong to different levels of the English language system. The phonetic level reveals such features as metathesis, final consonant reduction, imitation of aspiration, alliteration, wordplay based on homophony, etc. They imitate a peculiar Irish accent and exert some vernacular effect. The lexical level is represented by culture-bound vocabulary including ethnographical terms, anthroponyms and geographical names, both real and invented, various kinds of borrowings from Irish Gaeilge,quotations etc. Some cultural features are exhibited in grammar and text rhythm, chiefly through the use of specific verb forms of Irish English as well as certain correlations of repetition-based rhythmic devices – polysyndeton, diacope, anaphora, epizeuxis, symploce etc. The study of linguocultural text markers gives a comprehensive idea of intra- and extralinguistic characteristics of the tale.

Prototype pre-Class Website Development as an Improvement of Java Language Learning in SMK

This study aims to produce a website as enrichment for Javanese learning material in vocational schools. This study uses the Research and Development (R&D) research method. The results of this study consisted of three discussions, namely the needs of teachers and students for material enrichment, enrichment of website prototypes, and the results of website prototype validation tests as enrichment of Javanese learning in vocational schools. Questionnaires for teacher and student needs were used to construct a prototype pre-class enrichment site. The developed prototype of the enrichment website is categorized into four main sections, namely homepage, about me, enrichment, digital library, and contacts. The homepage contains an introduction, developer profile, and buttons for enrichment pages and digital libraries. The about me section contains a website developer biography. The enrichment section contains enrichment material for Javanese learning materials for Javanese speech levels. The digital library section contains digital e-books as supporting material for learning Javanese. The contact section contains a form that can be used to contact the developer. Based on the assessment conducted by website and book experts, this website can attract students' interest to learn Javanese independently

On the Usage ‘Tangsin(you)’ in Korean translation Bible and its appropriateness

The purpose of this article is to summarize the usage of the personal pronoun ‘Tangsin(당신/you)’ used in the Korean translation Bible, and to examine the validity and translation-appropriateness of its usage. The Korean personal pronoun ‘Tangsin(당신/you)’ is used as a pronoun for the second and third persons, and as a pronoun for the second person, it matches ‘Hao-style’ in the Hearer Honorific Speech Level. And it’s constitutes a very high-grade recursive use method for the third person. Because of this property of the personal pronoun ‘Tangsin(당신/you)’, the use of the second person pronoun ‘Tangsin(당신/you)’ for God or a divine being is in principle impossible. However, the case where ‘Tangsin(당신/you)’ can be used for God or a divine being is limited to cases that contain the meaning of recursion as a third person pronoun. In this case, it is natural that you should use a ‘Hashipsioche’ as the ending. It is much more natural to use a noun than a pronoun as an expression of respect for God, a divine being, or a person with a higher hierarchy than the speaker. Using an empty pronoun or other pronouns(e.g. 자네, 그대, 그분) is a good alternative. In the new Korean Bible that will be translated later, I hope that these issues will be reviewed anew.

Komunikačně-stylový a systémový pohyb v současné češtině

The Czech language is socially stratified and regionally differentiated, although there are also processes of the opposite character going on in it, like unification and equali-zation. Language development includes in itself antinomies opposing each other, but which are mutually complementary and converting into each other. The paper presents an interpretation of the functioning of selected antinomies in the language and in speech, such as the relationship between the standard and non-standard forms, represented by the common Czech. As early as in the middle of the last century the tendency to blurring of boundaries between them occurred, while various linguists have had different opinions on that process. These opinions are reflected in inconsistencies present in normative books (dictionaries, grammars, orthographic norms, normative educational handbooks), and this raises the uncer-tainty of users in the choice of language means. The users are now perhaps more influenced by the media than by teaching. The level of media speech is reflected in the speech of ordinary users, the frequent phenomena being overused, they become fashion, they insinuate themselves into the speech regardless of their functionality or non-functionality. In general, the current situation of the Czech can be characterized as dynamic, with developmental features, both systemic and irregular. Linguistics should not only capture this situation and describe it, but influence it by linguistic awareness, as the followers of the Prague School claimed. However, some linguists refuse it, consider-ing it wrongly as intervention and manipulation.

Development of Hearing Aid Gain for Korean Hearing Impaired version 2.0 Considering Levels and Spectra of Korean Conversational Speech, and Preferred Gain

Purpose: This study aimed to report the development of Hearing Aid Gain for Korean Hearing Impaired version 2.0 (HAG-K v2.0), the Korean-type hearing aid fitting formula to improve the satisfaction of hearing aids and the communication ability of the Korean hearing impaired.Methods: HAG-K v2.0 was compared to NAL-NL2 with real-ear insertion gain (REIG) of the Korean hearing impaired, which was produced by considering most comfortable level and uncomfortable level, the levels and spectra of Korean conversational speech, band importance function, and preferred gain.Results: When REIG produced from HAG-K v2.0 was compared to NAL-NL2, it resulted low at HTL 40 and 80 dB HL and the compression threshold of HAG-K v2.0 was higher in all HTL compared to NAL-NL2. And the compression ratio was high at HTL 40 dB HL for NAL-NL2 and at 80 dB HL for HAG-K v2.0.Conclusion: HAG-K v2.0 developed in this study is the initial version of the Korean-type hearing aid fitting formula considering the characteristics of Korean conversational speech levels, spectra and preferred gain. With the systematic corrections and supplements for HAG-K v2.0 in the future, the Korean hearing impaired would benefit from this formula in electroacoustic control of the hearing aids.

Speech Recognition in Noise in Single-Sided Deaf Cochlear Implant Children on Using Adaptive Digital Microphone Technology.

Previous research demonstrated benefits of adaptive digital microphone technologies (ADMTs) in adults with single-sided deafness (SSD) having a cochlear implant (CI). Children with SSD are especially affected by background noise because of their noise exposure in kindergarten and school. This article aims to evaluate possible effects of ADMT on speech recognition in background noise in children with SSD who use a CI. Ten children between 5 and 11 years of age were included. Speech recognition in noise was assessed for one frontal distant and two lateral speakers. The speech stimulus was presented at a speech level of 65 dB(A) and noise at a level of 55 dB(A). For the presentation condition with one frontal speaker, four listening conditions were assessed: (1) normal-hearing (NH) ear and CI turned off; (2) NH ear and CI; (3) NH ear and CI with ADMT; and (4) NH ear with ADMT and CI. Listening conditions (2) to (4) were also tested for each lateral speaker. The frontal speaker was positioned directly in front of the participant, whereas the lateral speakers were positioned at angles of 90 degrees and -90 degrees to the participant's head. Children with SSD who use a CI significantly benefit from the application of ADMT in speech recognition in noise for frontal distant and for lateral speakers. Speech recognition improved significantly with ADMT at the CI and the NH ears. Application of ADMT significantly improves speech recognition in noise in children with SSD who use a CI and can therefore be highly recommended. The decision of whether to apply ADMT at the CI NH ear or bilaterally should be made for each child individually.

SYNERGETIC OF DECODING THE SEMANTIC VOLUME OF A NOUN IN RELATION TO THE VERBAL MODALITY KÖNNEN (on the basis of German-language fiction and press)

The focus of the article lies in the study of the generating noun content in relation to the verbal modality können in German from the perspective of linguosynergetic scientific paradigm, which considers language as a complex dynamic system capable of self-organization and self-regulation. In this study methodologically important is the position that the synergetic law of making the least effort and conservation of speech energy is the driving factor of language development. In a synergetic sense, the author of the article draws parallels between the dictionary as a representative of the linguistic generalization of the structured amount of knowledge of the learned extraverbal reality and the mental lexicon, which is not an arbitrary accumulation of contributions, but constitutes a structured hierarchical system of such contributions. If lexical units in the synergetic sense and their meanings at the language level contain coded structured information, then in the same aspect the paper considers the implementation of the word in one of its meanings at the speech level as information decoding. The linguosynergetic format of the research proposed in this article assumes that language as a self-regulating system under the influence of external energy and information has developed a mechanism of different representations of nouns in syntactic constructions with different verbal modality in German-language fiction and press. The results obtained on the basis of the synergetic-quantitative approach are extrapolated to linguosynergetic models of self-organization of noun names according to the principle of minimization of efforts, which directs the human mental lexicon to optimal decoding of semantic volume of polysemic or monosemic nouns in relation to the verbal modality können in German-language fiction and press. It is proved that since the closest distances in the lexical structure of a word at the linguistic level are the closest in comparison with the structures of knowledge of the human mental lexicon, the construction of noun content in modern German on the synergetic principle of conservation of speech energy and minimization of efforts is the most optimal way of directing the mental lexicon of a person to decoding the semantic scope of an unambiguous monosemic model and the main meaning of the polysemic word model.

The study of Indonesian verbs berkata, bersabda, and berfirman

This research aims to analyze the existence of the Indonesian verbs “berkata”, “bersabda”, and “berfirman” (to say, to state). The method of document study was executed to provide the data, namely the translation of the Holy Quran (2004). Although it is unfair to compare the language of Indonesia and the language of Java from a speech level point of view, this paper is simply meant to trace how the words of the language of Indonesia show its speech levels in its own way. The Indonesian verbs “berfirman”, “bersabda”, and “berkata” are used to describe the activity of ‘saying’ or ‘speaking’ of God (berfirman), the Prophet Muhammad (bersabda), and people in common (berkata). It is concluded here that there are speech levels in the language of Indonesia, but they are not to compare with the speech levels like in the language of Java, Bali, Madura, Sunda, and or Sasak of Lombok.

The Past Forms of Japanese Futsuugo and Javanese Ngoko Lugu: Contrastive Analysis in Sociolinguistics

This paper is based on studying the differences and similarities in the form, structure, and usage of past sentences futsuugo-ngoko lugu in Japanese and Javanese. The study combines a qualitative and sociolinguistically informed comparative method. The data were taken from different sources, namely Shin Suikodenand Jin (a Japanese novel and play respectively), Ketoprak Wiswakarman (a traditional Javanese play), and Panjebar Semangat (a Javanese magazine), and were then analyzed from a contrastive linguistic perspective. Theories on Japanese and Javanese descriptive sentences, namely those of Ishii,[1] Masuoka,[2] Poedjosoedarmo,[3] Sasangka,[4] and Wedhawati,[5] were used. Besides, Djadjasudarma and Citraresmana [6] descriptive-qualitative method, Sanada’s,[7] concept of Sociolinguistics, as well as Tarigan’s,[8] Ishiwata and Takahashi’s,[9] theories of contrastive linguistics were also consulted. The study aimed to describe the differences and similarities in the forms, structures, and usage of past sentences futsuugo-ngoko lugu in Japanese and Javanese based on the dialogues' data. The study concludes that the addressers and addressees' speech levels in the Japanese conversations are those of futsuugo and ngoko lugu, which are comparable in the Javanese.

Sundanese Language Variations on Children’s Speech Found in Multicultural Environment

Language used in multicultural environment has been analyzed and showed many new findings. This study was purposed to examine Sundanese language variations on children's speech found in multicultural environment, especially who live in Bandung, West Java. Obtaining data were done by observing competent observations. Results of simak, libat, cakap methods are described qualitatively. The results show that there are some different language variations with their various factors. Language variations began to be used along with the development of their age, so the acquisition of the language has begun to show its uniqueness. The level of speech used is not used to fulfill the rules in force, such as using polite language when talking to their parents. This situation is very possible to occur due to environmental factors that do not support the use of speech levels at the time of speaking. Language variation of formal and informal can already be distinguished by speakers both consciously or not. The speech form is marked by the form of words and sentences that are concise, such as in the language spoken in a child's environment. Some languages that emerge and are used in daily life, are Indonesian, Sundanese, English and Arabic and they make speakers have a lot of vocabularies. Serious revitalization is needed to protect local language lost. Keywords: language variation, speech, multilingual, language lost

Speech-Brain Frequency Entrainment of Dyslexia with and without Phonological Deficits.

Developmental dyslexia is a cognitive disorder characterized by difficulties in linguistic processing. Our purpose is to distinguish subtypes of developmental dyslexia by the level of speech–EEG frequency entrainment (δ: 1–4; β: 12.5–22.5; γ1: 25–35; and γ2: 35–80 Hz) in word/pseudoword auditory discrimination. Depending on the type of disabilities, dyslexics can divide into two subtypes—with less pronounced phonological deficits (NoPhoDys—visual dyslexia) and with more pronounced ones (PhoDys—phonological dyslexia). For correctly recognized stimuli, the δ-entrainment is significantly worse in dyslexic children compared to controls at a level of speech prosody and syllabic analysis. Controls and NoPhoDys show a stronger δ-entrainment in the left-hemispheric auditory cortex (AC), anterior temporal lobe (ATL), frontal, and motor cortices than PhoDys. Dyslexic subgroups concerning normolexics have a deficit of δ-entrainment in the left ATL, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and the right AC. PhoDys has higher δ-entrainment in the posterior part of adjacent STS regions than NoPhoDys. Insufficient low-frequency β changes over the IFG, the inferior parietal lobe of PhoDys compared to NoPhoDys correspond to their worse phonological short-term memory. Left-dominant 30 Hz-entrainment for normolexics to phonemic frequencies characterizes the right AC, adjacent regions to superior temporal sulcus of dyslexics. The pronounced 40 Hz-entrainment in PhoDys than the other groups suggest a hearing “reassembly” and a poor phonological working memory. Shifting up to higher-frequency γ-entrainment in the AC of NoPhoDys can lead to verbal memory deficits. Different patterns of cortical reorganization based on the left or right hemisphere lead to differential dyslexic profiles.