Level Of Land Degradation Research Articles

Farming Household Socio-Economic Influences on Land Degradation in District Mardan of Pakistan

Land Degradation (LD) is an expanding universal problem influenced all areas of human prosperity. This research contributes to this end by analysing the perceptions of farmer and its socio-economic influences towards LD in four purposively selected union councils i.e. Toru, Ghari Kapoora, Lund Khwar, Katlang-1 of district Mardan. A total of 90 farmers were selected through proportionate simple random sampling from 857 register farmers. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaire from the heads of the farming households (HH) and analysed by descriptive statistics and Chi-square test. It was found that majority (62%) of the farmers were in the age groups of 41-60. HH size of the farmers was 6-9 members per HH. Farming experience of the HH heads was 21-31 and above years as reported by 63.33% of the respondents. Chisquare P-values pointed that age, HH size and farming experience have positive relationship with the LD. Land possession was 6-15 acre for the 53.33% of the farmers and growing both cash and food crops. In the area, the farmers perceived for the high level of LD and the causes for this was soil erosion, soil fertility loss, overgrazing, over population growth, soil salinization, tillage erosion, poor land management practices and water degradation. The effects of LD were difficulty in farming, drought, desertification, increased the necessity for fertilizers, loss in livestock production, migration, poverty and economic backwardness. High land degradation was perceived by the farmers and having positive association with the socio-economic influences. There is a need for awareness about the different land management and conservation practices coupled with different socio-economic sector-specific interventions in order to reduce the LD in the area for the future sustainability.

Penentuan Tingkat Kerusakan Lahan pada Berbagai Bentuk Penggunaan Lahan di Daerah Gumelar, Kabupaten Banyumas Jawa Tengah

Land degradation represents a form of land productivity decrease that occurs due to the presence of incompatible land usage with land characteristic, which resulted in land capacity deterioration. Land degradation evaluation is determined based on Government Regulation No.150/2000 regarding land degradation control for biomass production, and Living Environment Minister Regulation No. 7/2006 for criteria standardization on soil measurement of biomass production. This research was conducted to evaluate land degradation levels based on physical characteristics of several land use patterns in Gumelar Region. The research used a survey method with homogenous land unit (HLU). HLU approaches were obtained from overlay between land use map and slope map. The measured parameters were i.e. solum thickness, surface rockiness, soil texture, bulk density, porosity and permeability. Results of the samples analysis were compared with the parameters values on Goverment Regulation No. 150/2000. The results of the research showed 69,7% of the total area of Gumelar had undergone land degradation. Garden land use contributed 51.5% land degradation, which was divided into several classes i.e. good and slight damage potential was 12.0%, slightly damaged was 17.7%, slightly damaged with damage potential was 4.8%, and damaged was 17.1%. Dry land contributed to damaged land degradation of 11.3%, and categorized entirely as slightly damaged, while the shrub land use contributes 6.9% of degraded land (with 2.8% and 4.1% were good with slight damage potential and slightly damaged with damage potential, respectively). Largest contribution of land damage towards land degradation was dry land, all dry land in study area were in slightly damaged condition. Garden was the land use with lowest land degradation, which indicates the most suitable land use in the studied area was garden. Keywords: land use, land degradation, homogenous land unit, overlay

Efek Penggunaan Lahan Terhadap Degradasi Tanah Pada Kebun Campuran Di Kecamatan Kairatu Kabupaten Seram Bagian Barat Propinsi Maluku

Land use is the most influential factor in soil degradation due to erosion. The objectives of this research are to know the level of land degradation and the factors that influence the land use area, the upper vegetation density and the lower vegetation density. This research uses the method of measuring ground damage indicator in the field. The results showed that single, wide land use, upper vegetation density and lower vegetation density had an effect on soil degradation on mixed garden land use; while simultaneously, wide land use, upper vegetation density and lower vegetation density have an effect on soil degradation on mixed garden land use. The most influential factors for soil degradation in mixed gardens are the area of land use and lower vegetation density.Keyword: Degradation of soil, land, vegetation density, mixed gardens.

FAKTOR YANG BERPENGARUH TERHADAP TINGKAT KERAPATAN EROSI PARIT DI DAERAH ALIRAN SUNGAI KALIWUNGU ( Factor influencing density level of gully erosion in Kaliwungu watershed )

Distribution and density level of gullies reflect the level of land degradation on a catchment. This research aims to identify the distribution of gully and to calculate the density level of gully erosion in Kaliwungu Watershed. The distribution of gully was obtained through field survey, while the density level was analyzed based on landuse and landform maps. Gully distribution was overlayed on landuse and landform maps. Landuse was delineated by interpreting aerial photograph of Kaliwungu Watershed. Aerial imagery supported by the result of Sentinel image processing was used to observe vegetation density. Landform and slope were delineated from DEM. The gully small catchments were delineated by DEM and aerial photograph interpretation of Kaliwungu Watershed. Gully density is calculated by comparing erosion length and erosion volume to the small catchment extent. Descriptive analysis was used to determine the factors that influenced gully. The analysis was conducted based on the result of overlaying gully distribution on landuse and landform maps.The result of this research were a 1:10.000 map of gully distribution and density level of gully erosion in Kaliwungu Watershed. There were three density classes of gully in Kaliwungu Watershed which are high, medium, and low. The formation process of intensive gully only takes place at some intensively land cultivation points or at some land that has been highly disturbed by human activities. The result shows that landuse and land cultivation was the factors that influenced the formation of gully erosion.

Simulation of stream flow and hydrological response to land-cover changes in a tropical river basin

Land cover of river basins has undergone multiple modifications and conversions as a result of various pressures on ecosystems. This study calibrates and validates the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model for determining the hydrological response to land-cover changes in the Lower-Middle São Francisco River sub-basin (LMSFR), Brazil. The SWAT model was calibrated with 1993–1994 data from hydrological station at Juazeiro, while data from the 1995–2004 period were used for validation. We analyzed three scenarios of land cover which were compared to current landscape (pasture land): scenario I (pasture land is replaced by natural vegetation), scenario II (pasture land is replaced by maize crop cultivation), and scenario III (pasture land is replaced by bare soil). Calibration of the SWAT model in the LMSFR produced good results, as all evaluation indices reached satisfactory values in both calibration and validation periods for Juazeiro and validation period at Floresta. However, the calibrated model, when applied to Abreus, did not accurately simulate monthly stream flow (where r2=0.51 and NE=0.26). Scenario III had the greatest impact and influence on the sediment yield, which corresponded to an increase of 93.7% in comparison to the current land cover. This study identified regions where reforestation should be urgently carried out in the north part and extreme south of the sub-basin due to the overall level of land degradation.

Use of Landsat series data to analyse the spatial and temporal variations of land degradation in a dispersive soil environment: A case of King Sabata Dalindyebo local municipality in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Land degradation as a result of inappropriate land use practices, such as overgrazing and cultivation on steep slopes, etc. is one of the major global environmental challenges. Specifically, land degradation threatens the productivity and sustainability of the natural environment, agriculture, and most importantly rural economies in most developing countries, particularly the sub-Saharan region. The main aim of this study was therefore, to assess the potential and strength of using the free or readily available Landsat series data in mapping degraded land areas at the King Sabata Dalindyebo local municipality in the Eastern Cape, South Africa (1984–2010). Data analysis was done using a robust non-parametric classification ensemble; Discriminant Analysis (DA). The results show that degraded areas vary over the years. For example, the results show that the year 1994 and 2004 incurred high degradation levels, when compared to the year 1984 and 2010. Moreover, the observed degradation significantly (α = 0.05) varies with soil type. The chromic acrisols have the highest levels of erosion (approx. 80% in 1984), when compared to humic-umbric acrisols (less than 10% for the entire period under study). It can also be observed that considerable part of degradation occurred in the northern part of the municipal district. Overall, the findings of this research underlines the importance and efficacy of multispectral Landsat series data-set in mapping and monitoring levels of land degradation in data-scarce catchments.

Adoption of eco-friendly soil-management practices by smallholder farmers in Shandong Province of China

ABSTRACTLand degradation and agricultural pollution have been of great concern around the world in recent years, especially in developing countries. It is necessary to expand some eco-friendly soil-management practices to address serious environmental issues. Using data from 646 small-farm households in Shandong, China, perceptions of eco-friendly soil-management practices and land degradation, adoption attitudes and final adoption decisions are all evaluated, and the factors affecting farmers’ final adoption decisions are estimated by applying a logit model. The results show that the perception levels of land degradation and eco-friendly soil-management practices are very high, and more than 70% of the respondents indicated that they wanted to adopt the practices; however, only a small portion of the interviewed farmers made the final decision to apply these practices. Of all the factors, perception of practices and adoption attitude were the most important ones influencing farmers’ adoption decision positively. Knowledge of environmental regulations, risk type, degree of farmland fertility, agro-technical training, participation in agricultural insurance, interaction with other farmers and membership in farmers’ organizations had positive relationships with adoption decisions, whereas availability of farming funding influenced adoption decisions negatively. According to these findings, ensuring agricultural profit is the primary basis for farmers’ adoption decisions; however, agricultural information—especially information about eco-friendly soil-management technologies—should also be widely dispersed, and environmental regulations should be strictly enforced.

Quantifying the impact of land degradation on crop production: the case of Senegal

Abstract. Land degradation has been a persistent problem in Senegal for more than a century and by now has become a serious impediment to long-term development. In this paper, we quantify the impact of land degradation on crop yields using the results of a nationwide land degradation assessment. For this, the study needs to address two issues. First, the land degradation assessment comprises qualitative expert judgements that have to be converted into more objective, quantitative terms. We propose a land degradation index and assess its plausibility. Second, observational data on soils, land use, and rainfall do not provide sufficient information to isolate the impact of land degradation. We, therefore, design a pseudo-experiment that for sites with otherwise similar circumstances compares the yield of a site with and one without land degradation. This pairing exercise is conducted under a gradual refining of the classification of circumstances, until a more or less stable response to land degradation is obtained. In this way, we hope to have controlled sufficiently for confounding variables that will bias the estimation of the impact of land degradation on crop yields. A small number of shared characteristics reveal tendencies of "severe" land degradation levels being associated with declining yields as compared to similar sites with "low" degradation levels. However, as we zoom in at more detail some exceptions come to the fore, in particular in areas without fertilizer application. Yet, our overall conclusion is that yield reduction is associated with higher levels of land degradation, irrespective of whether fertilizer is being applied or not.

CHARACTERIZATION NDVI SPACE-TIME AND SURFACE AND ANALYSIS PHYTOSOCIOLOGIC ALBEDO FOR SÃO JOÃO DO CARIRI

Advances in research on desertification processes were acquired through remote sensing, especially in the analysis of the dynamics between surface and atmosphere. The techniques in remote sensing for its intrinsic spatial and multi-temporal approach allow the evaluation process trends by identifying changes in vegetation and surface soil by monitoring multiple parameters including the Vegetation Index Difference standardized and surface albedo. The main objective of the study was to determine the evolution spatiotemporal two indicators of desertification obtained through remote sensing: the albedo surface and NDVI based on spectral bands of TM - Landsat 5, thus contributing to the establishment plans to combat desertification in action for the municipality of São João do Cariri, Paraiba semi-arid, presenting severe levels of land degradation (84%). Satellite images were used Landsat - 5 TM, orbit 215 point 065 between the years 1990 and 2005 acquired the site of the United States Geological Survey - USGS. Use of ArcGIS software 9.3 and ERDAS Imagine 9.3 GIS lab meteorological department of the Federal University of Campina Grande - UFCG. The images were validated with field research and conducting this survey vegetation in the area (7 26'57.12 "S and 36º30'25.85" O). The structure of vegetation was carried out in two plots of 10 x 20 m, lying 50 cm between plots with a total area of ​​0,04ha. Were used for analysis only, the shrubby-arboreal extracts with (CAP) ≥ 3.5, Phytosociological using the following parameters: absolute density (DA), the relative density (RD), absolute frequency (AF), on rate (RR) absolute dominance (DoA), relative dominance (DoR) and importance value (VI). found that there is a strong inverse linear relationship between NDVI and surface albedo and according to the results obtained for the city of São João do Cariri, in the period between 1990 and 2005.Verificou It is this temporal analysis of biophysical parameters that when the value of albedo declined in class 0.10-0.15 there was an increase in classes 0.4- 0.6 and> 0.6 NDVI, conversely the 0.15-0.20 and 20-30 albedo classes showed an expansion in these areas and hence a decrease in the area corresponding to 0.2 to 0 class 4 NDVI.O increase in albedo values ​​can be explained by the influence of meteorological factors (rain irregularity, energy balance etc.) and by human activities responsible for landscape change over time. The Phytosociological results for the two installments selected 30 individuals were found belonging to 9 species contained in 5 families. The families with the highest number of species were: Mimosaceae, with 12 individuals, Cactaceae with 8 individuals and Fabaceae with 4 individuals, they are typical of anthropogenic environments showing enough tolerance to high levels of disturbance.

Development of Spectral Index for Discriminating Degraded Lands

study was conducted to characterize the spectral variability of degraded lands in Agro Ecological Zone 4.1 of Tamil Nadu uplands and to develop spectral indices to distinguish stages of land degradation. In this study, Spectroradiometer GER 1500 was used for recording the spectral reflectance values of degraded lands from 400 to 1050 nm in various locations representing different types of degraded lands in the study area. A spectral index was identified for discriminating different levels of land degradation. Among the locations, the degraded status of lands was found to be of four different categories, viz., waste lands – open scrub, dense scrub, and slightly salt affected and moderately salt affected. It was observed that there is a difference between spectral reflectance values and various levels of degraded lands. It was also observed that the ratio of reflectance at 760 and 675 nm has given a better difference in the determination of various types of degraded lands.

Frações oxidáveis do carbono orgânico total e macrofauna edáfica em sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária

O crescente nível de degradação das terras tem promovido a adoção de manejos agrícolas que busque aliar a produção agropecuária à conservação do solo. Entre esses, a prática da Integração Lavoura-Pecuária (ILP) tem intensificado-se no Centro-Oeste brasileiro. Com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito em longo prazo do sistema ILP e da sazonalidade, sob a comunidade da macrofauna edáfica e das frações oxidáveis do carbono orgânico total (COT) em áreas de cultivo e Cerradão, foi desenvolvido na Fazenda Cabeceira no município de Maracaju, MS, um estudo em que se mensurou a influência da ILP sobre as frações oxidáveis do COT e sobre a macrofauna edáfica. O sistema ILP está sendo utilizado nessa área desde 2003; o solo foi identificado como Latossolo Vermelho, localizado em área de relevo plano. As áreas amostradas possuem o seguinte histórico: soja/milho + braquiária/algodão/ aveia + pastagem/soja/formação da pastagem/pastagem; as amostragens foram realizadas na época seca, em que as culturas presentes eram pasto, milho+braquiária e algodão; e na chuvosa, com milho+braquiária, algodão e soja. Assim, as áreas nas duas épocas de avaliação foram: pasto/milho, milho+braquiária/ algodão, algodão/soja e uma área nativa de Cerradão. A amostragem foi realizada nas profundidades de 0-10, 10-20 e 20-30 cm, sendo feitas as seguintes determinações: análise da macrofauna edáfica, fracionamento granulométrico da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS) e frações oxidáveis do COT. As áreas não apresentavam delineamento experimental, sendo este um estudo de observação. Os dados foram comparados pelo teste de Kruskal Wallis a 5 % e por meio da análise de redundância. A compartimentalização da MOS pode ser utilizada para a avaliação da qualidade do manejo, sendo os compartimentos mais sensíveis as frações F1 e F2 de frações oxidáveis, pois são mais lábeis no solo, já as frações F3 e F4 são as mais recalcitrantes. Isoptera (cupim) pode estar atuando como agente humificador da matéria orgânica na área de Cerradão, contribuindo para maiores teores de F3 e F4, em relação à F1 e F2 na época seca. Esse padrão somente foi verificado na área de Cerradão, visto que nas áreas de produção, Isoptera é controlado pelo manejo. A falta desse inseto no sistema ILP pode estar reduzindo a estabilização da MOS nas frações F3 e F4.

An Exploration of Scenarios to Support Sustainable Land Management Using Integrated Environmental Socio-economic Models

Scenario analysis constitutes a valuable deployment method for scientific models to inform environmental decision-making, particularly for evaluating land degradation mitigation options, which are rarely based on formal analysis. In this paper we demonstrate such an assessment using the PESERA-DESMICE modeling framework with various scenarios for 13 global land degradation hotspots. Starting with an initial assessment representing land degradation and productivity under current conditions, options to combat instances of land degradation are explored by determining: (1) Which technologies are most biophysically appropriate and most financially viable in which locations; we term these the "technology scenarios"; (2) how policy instruments such as subsidies influence upfront investment requirements and financial viability and how they lead to reduced levels of land degradation; we term these the "policy scenarios"; and (3) how technology adoption affects development issues such as food production and livelihoods; we term these the "global scenarios". Technology scenarios help choose the best technology for a given area in biophysical and financial terms, thereby outlining where policy support may be needed to promote adoption; policy scenarios assess whether a policy alternative leads to a greater extent of technology adoption; while global scenarios demonstrate how implementing technologies may serve wider sustainable development goals. Scenarios are applied to assess spatial variation within study sites as well as to compare across different sites. Our results show significant scope to combat land degradation and raise agricultural productivity at moderate cost. We conclude that scenario assessment can provide informative input to multi-level land management decision-making processes.

Kajian Tingkat Degradasi Lahan dan Kemampuan Lahan pada Usahatani Lahan Kering Berbasis Tembakau di Sub-DAS Progo Hulu

Title : The study of land capability and land degradation level on tobacco-based upland farming at Progo Hulu Sub-watershed. The recent and also the future problems for Indonesian concerning with agricultural environment resources are land degradation and water resources restrictiveness. Agricultural technique without awareness to concerning to soil and water conservation principles on steep and high rainfall area had caused severe erosion and land degradation at upland area of Progo Hulu sub-watershed. Land Degradation that promoted by erosion at Progo Hulu sub-watershed contributed negative effects at on-site and out-site area. The results showed that: (1) The degradation levels on upland farming area of Progo Hulu sub-watershed (7.398,54 ha) are classified as: low (708.71 ha or 9.58%), moderate (5,119.15 ha or 69.19%) and high (1,570.68 ha or 21.23%); (2) The land capability classes were dominated by Class IV (3,624.93 ha or 49.00%), followed with Class VI (2,488.82 ha or 33.64%), Class III (697.99 ha or 9.43%), Class V (450.73 ha or 6.09%), and Class VII (136.06 ha or 1.84%). Keywords: land capability, land degradation, Progo Hulu Sub-watershed

Plant phenology as affected by land degradation in the arid Patagonian Monte, Argentina: A multivariate approach

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the study of climate change effects on plant phenology. However, the effects of other more localized components of global change such as land degradation have been almost completely ignored. In this paper we evaluate the phenological patterns of 10 plant species at three sites with contrasting levels of land degradation due to overgrazing in the Patagonian Monte, Argentina, and their relationship with plant morphology, browsing intensity, and plant competition.Plant phenology differed among sites in eight species, but plant responses were species-specific. In six species the dormancy and senescence periods were shorter indicating longer growing cycles at high degradation than at low degradation site. Generally, plants growing at high degradation site present longer and frequently incomplete vegetative periods and shorter and less dominant reproductive periods than those at low degradation site. However, in some species the duration of reproductive periods was greater in the high degradation site. Plant size (i.e. height, area, and/or internal cover) affected plant phenology in seven species. In contrast, browsing and neighbor's cover were rarely related to plant phenology. Our results suggest that other global change components such as land degradation may affect plant phenology.

Modeling sedimentation rates of Malilangwe reservoir in the south-eastern lowveld of Zimbabwe

Modelling the sedimentation rates using the Wallingford (2004) equations with the aid of NDVI (remote sensing) to assess land degradation was carried out for Malilangwe reservoir catchment in the south eastern lowveld of Zimbabwe. Siltation life of the reservoir was determined from rate of incoming sediment, trap efficiency and reservoir capacity using the Wallingford method. The average rainfall of the study area was about 560 mm while runoff from the catchment ranged from 0.3 mm (minimum) to 199 mm (maximum) with an overall average runoff of 50.03 mm. Results showed that the overall mean annual sediment concentration was approximately 2,400 ppm. The reservoir capacity to inflow ratio was estimated at 0.8 with a sedimentation rate of 120.1 tkm -2 year -1 . Calculated probability of the dam filling is 26.8 %. Results also showed that the siltation life of the reservoir was (100 years according to the Wallingford method. The Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) showed progressive decline (p 0.05) of the vegetation health from 2000 to 2009. While acknowledging the limitations of techniques used, this study demonstrates in part the effectiveness of sedimentation modelling and remote sensing as a tool for the production of baseline data for assessment and monitoring levels of land degradation in the Malilangwe reservoir catchment.

Degraded rangeland dominated by unpalatable forbs exhibits large-scale spatial heterogeneity

The spatial heterogeneity of vegetation and soil increases in response to land degradation caused by grazing mainly at a large spatial scale. This increase has been frequently associated with shrub invasion, but shrub invasion does not necessarily accompany land degradation. Instead, dominance by unpalatable forbs has been reported in some regions, but the spatial heterogeneity of such degraded rangeland has not been studied. We investigated the spatial heterogeneity of rangeland dominated by unpalatable forbs at a large spatial scale using Mongolian rangeland as an example. Spatial heterogeneity of the total vegetation cover and community heterogeneity were analyzed for three levels of land degradation. We found that the least-degraded site had homogeneous total vegetation cover and community, that the site with intermediate degradation exhibited low heterogeneity of the total vegetation cover but significant community type variation, and that the most degrade sites exhibited a periodic pattern of total vegetation cover as a result of a mixture of dense and sparse patches of unpalatable forbs. These different responses can be used to assess land degradation levels and may have potential to monitor land degradation at a large scale by satellite images.

Fog water collection and reforestation at a mountain location in a western Mediterranean basin region: air-mass origins and synoptic analysis

An inland mountainous location in eastern Spain was selected for reforestation studies based on the fog water collection potential prevailing in the area and the high level of land degradation resulting from recurrent forest fires in the past. Bulk fog-water catches were stored and used in a micro-irrigation network to provide summer emergency water pulses to a plot of reforestation seedlings. Results indicate that survival rates and seedling growth of the two species planted, Pinns pinaster and Quercus ilex, improved with the use of small timely waterings and additional treatments with composted biosolids. Fog collection measurements during the 3-year period of the experiment revealed an average water yield of 3.2 l/m2/day, which, although moderate, is a suitable value for afforestation activities. Fog formation is explained in terms of air mass origin and pathway, atmospheric conditions and orographic features. Statistical analysis of the winds bearing fog and the periodicity of fog collection provide the particular characteristics of the experimental site.

Prospective use of collected fog water in the restoration of degraded burned areas under dry Mediterranean conditions

A mountainous plot located in the interior of the Valencia region (east coast of the Iberian Peninsula) was identified for reforestation using the fog-water collection potential prevailing in the area. Fog data were obtained by means of an instrument ensemble consisting of a passive cylindrical fog-water collector, a rain gauge, a wind direction and velocity sensor and a temperature and humidity probe. Preliminary results gave rise to the additional deployment of a low-cost 18-m 2 flat-panel collector connected to three 1000-l tanks for larger scale fog-water collection and storage. The 2007 annual rate of fog water that could be derived from the instrument ensemble amounted to 3.3 l/m 2/day, which turn out to fill up the storage tanks completely in only 5 months, even though the flat-panel collector could not be operative 100% of the time. The study made use of the in situ stored water and a micro-irrigation network to irrigate a plot of reforestation seedlings through small water pulses localized deep in the planting hole during the summer dry period. Until the present, this forest location had always shown a difficult self-recovery due to the high level of land degradation resulting from recurrent forest fires in the past. Results indicate that survival rates and seedling performance of the two species planted, Pinus pinaster and Quercus ilex, improved with the use of small timely waterings and additional treatments with composted biosolid.

Harnessing Community Capitals for Livelihood Enhancement: Experiences From a Livelihood Program in Rural Uganda

This study assesses how community capitals can be harnessed to improve food security using the “sustainable livelihoods” and “community capitals” frameworks. We demonstrate how the dimensions of these frameworks can be measured and applied in development work. Data were collected using participatory methods in four communities comprised of 500 households in rural Kamuli District, Uganda, where food and nutrition insecurity have been a serious problem. Results indicated high levels of land degradation linked to high population densities and resource constraints. Compared to cultural capital, existing social capital levels were relatively inadequate for development activities. The condition of physical capital varied among the communities. Community members also generated indicators of income, food and nutrition security which were used to rate the status of each participating household. The information collected guided the setting of priority program interventions. Lessons learned from use of the participatory methods are also discussed.

Blood and Soil? Resource Scarcity and Internal Armed Conflict Revisited

Scarcity of renewable resources is frequently argued to be a main driver of violent conflict. The 2004 and 2007 Nobel Peace Prize awards, as well as the international debate about the implications of climate change, show the salience of the topic as a security issue. Studies testing the link between renewable resource scarcity and armed conflict have reached diverging conclusions. One study, in particular, has found substantial support for eco-scarcity theory, while most others have found a limited association. This article starts with an attempt at replicating earlier findings on the link between population density, soil degradation, deforestation, water scarcity and civil war, but several results are not replicable. The final results lend little support to a purported link between resource scarcity and civil conflict, whereas it replicates earlier findings on the importance of poverty, instability and dependence of fuel exports. A high level of land degradation is the only factor that significantly increases the risk of civil conflict, although this result should be interpreted with caution. The general conclusion of this study is that scarcity of natural resources has limited explanatory power in terms of civil violence, whereas poverty and dysfunctional institutions are robustly related to conflict. Future studies on the link between resource scarcity and violent conflict should focus on local and less intense conflicts, pay more attention to a context of low economic development, look more thoroughly into the role of state actors in the escalatory phase of conflict and assess the importance of the distribution of resources relative to scarcity per se.