Level Of Defense Research Articles

Aposematic coloration of Pacific newts (Taricha) provides a qualitatively but not quantitatively honest signal to predators

Abstract Colourful displays are used by diverse taxa to warn predators of dangerous defences (aposematism). Aposematic coloration is especially widespread among amphibians, which are often protected by harmful toxins. Pacific newts (Taricha) are considered a model of aposematism because when threatened, they arch the head and tail upwards to expose a vivid orange ventrum against a dark dorsum. Given that newts are defended by tetrodotoxin (TTX), a lethal neurotoxin, this signal is assumed to warn predators that an attack would be risky. However, colours have not been quantified in Taricha, and it remains unknown whether coloration provides qualitatively honest (signalling toxic defence) or quantitatively honest (signalling toxin level) warnings. We used two colour quantification methods (spectrometry and hyperspectral imaging) to measure chromatic (hue) and achromatic (brightness) qualities of ventral and dorsal coloration in two newt species (Taricha granulosa and Taricha sierrae). We assessed qualitative honesty using visual models of potential predators (snakes, birds and mammals). Next, we evaluated quantitative honesty by measuring TTX in newts and examining the potential correlation between defence level (amount of TTX) and colorimetrics. We found support for qualitative but not quantitative honesty. Selective pressures and evolutionary constraints might impede the evolution of honest quantitative signalling in this system.

Quercetin handles cellular oxidant/antioxidant systems and mitigates immunosenescence hallmarks in human PBMCs: An in vitro study.

Immunosenescence, oxidative stress, and low vaccine efficacy are important symptoms of aging. The goal of our study was to test if quercetin had antiaging and stimulating effects on peripheral blood mononuclear cell(PBMC) immune cells in vitro in the presence of concanavalin a, PBMCs were isolated from healthy elderly and young people and cultured in a complete Roswell Park Memorial Institute 1640 medium supplemented with quercetin. Cell proliferation was assessed using the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromidecolorimetric assay after a 48-hincubation period. Spectrophotometricassays were used to assess oxidative biomarkers (proteins carbonyl[PC], malondialdehydes [MDA], and reduced glutathione [GSH]).The enzyme-linkedimmunosorbent assay method was used to determine the amount of interleukin(IL)-2 released. A Griess reagent was used to investigate inducible nitrite oxide synthase(iNOS) activity. When compared to young control cells, aged PBMCs had lower proliferation potency, lower IL-2 and NO release, and higher MDA and PC levels. Importantly, quercetin-treated aged PBMCs have a high proliferative response comparable to young cells, restored iNOS activity, and increased levels of GSH antioxidant defences. In comparison to untreated aged PBMCs, treated PBMCs have lower lipo-oxidative damage but higher PC levels. Quercetin may be used as a promising dietary vaccinal adjuvant in the elderly, it has significant effects in reducing immunosenescence hallmarks, as well as mitigating the lipo-oxidative stress in PBMCs cells.

Age-specific allocation of glucosinolates within plant reproductive tissues

The Optimal Defense Theory (ODT) predicts that the distribution of defenses within a plant should mirror the value and vulnerability of each tissue. Although the ODT has received much experimental support, very few studies have examined defense allocation among reproductive tissues and none assessed simultaneously how these defenses evolve with age. We quantified glucosinolates in perianths, anthers and pistils at different bud maturity stages (i.e., intermediate flower buds, old flower buds and flowers) of undamaged and mechanically damaged plants of an annual brassicaceous species. The youngest leaf was used as a reference for vegetative organs, since it is predicted to be one of the most defended. In line with ODT predictions, reproductive tissues were more defended than vegetative tissues constitutively, and within the former, pistils and anthers more defended than perianths. No change in the overall defense level was found between bud maturity stages, but a significant temporal shift was observed between pistils and anthers. Contrary to ODT predictions, mechanical damage did not induce systemic defenses in leaves but only in pistils. Our results show that defense allocation in plant reproductive tissues occurs at fine spatial and temporal scales, extending the application framework of the ODT. They also demonstrate interactions between space and time in fine-scale defense allocation.

Curcumin Confers Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Adults Who Recovered from COVID-19 and Were Subsequently Vaccinated: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

COVID-19 infection and vaccination offer disparate levels of defense against reinfection and breakthrough infection. This study was designed to examine the effects of curcumin supplementation, specifically HydroCurc (CURC), versus placebo (CON) on circulating inflammatory biomarkers in adults who had previously been diagnosed with COVID-19 and subsequently received a primary series of monovalent vaccine doses. This study was conducted between June 2021 and May 2022. Participants were randomized to receive CURC (500 mg) or CON capsules twice daily for four weeks. Blood sampling was completed at baseline and week-4 and analyzed for biomarkers. Linear regression was utilized to examine the between-group differences in post-trial inflammatory biomarker levels, adjusting for baseline and covariates including age, sex, race/ethnicity, and interval between COVID-19 diagnosis and trial enrollment. The sample (n = 31) was 71% female (Age 27.6 ± 10.4 y). The CURC group exhibited significantly lower post-trial concentrations of proinflammatory IL-6 (β = -0.52, 95%CI: -1.03, -0.014, p = 0.046) and MCP-1 (β = -0.12, 95%CI: -0.23, -0.015, p = 0.027) compared to CON, adjusting for baseline and covariates. Curcumin intake confers anti-inflammatory activity and may be a promising prophylactic nutraceutical strategy for COVID-19. These results suggest that 4 weeks of curcumin supplementation resulted in significantly lower concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines in adults who recovered from COVID-19 infection and were subsequently vaccinated.

Differential defensive and nutritional traits among cultivated tomato and its wild relatives shape their interactions with a specialist herbivore.

Cultivated tomato presented lower constitutive volatiles, reduced morphological and chemical defenses, and increased leaf nutritional quality that affect its resistance against the specialist herbivore Tuta absoluta compared to its wild relatives. Plant domestication process has selected desirable agronomic attributes that can both intentionally and unintentionally compromise other important traits, such as plant defense and nutritional value. However, the effect of domestication on defensive and nutritional traits of plant organs not exposed to selection and the consequent interactions with specialist herbivores are only partly known. Here, we hypothesized that the modern cultivated tomato has reduced levels of constitutive defense and increased levels of nutritional value compared with its wild relatives, and such differences affect the preference and performance of the South American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta-an insect pest that co-evolved with tomato. To test this hypothesis, we compared plant volatile emissions, leaf defensive (glandular and non-glandular trichome density, and total phenolic content), and nutritional traits (nitrogen content) among the cultivated tomato Solanum lycopersicum and its wild relatives S. pennellii and S. habrochaites. We also determined the attraction and ovipositional preference of female moths and larval performance on cultivated and wild tomatoes. Volatile emissions were qualitatively and quantitatively different among the cultivated and wild species. Glandular trichomes density and total phenolics were lower in S. lycopersicum. In contrast, this species had a greater non-glandular trichome density and leaf nitrogen content. Female moths were more attracted and consistently laid more eggs on the cultivated S. lycopersicum. Larvae fed on S. lycopersicum leaves had a better performance reaching shorter larval developmental times and increasing the pupal weight compared to those fed on wild tomatoes. Overall, our study documents that agronomic selection for increased yields has altered the defensive and nutritional traits in tomato plants, affecting their resistance to T. absoluta.

Security Quantification of Container-Technology-Driven E-Government Systems

With the rapidly increasing demands of e-government systems in smart cities, a myriad of challenges and issues are required to be addressed. Among them, security is one of the prime concerns. To this end, we analyze different e-government systems and find that an e-government system built with container-based technology is endowed with many features. In addition, overhauling the architecture of container-technology-driven e-government systems, we observe that securing an e-government system demands quantifying security issues (vulnerabilities, threats, attacks, and risks) and the related countermeasures. Notably, we find that the Attack Tree and Attack–Defense Tree methods are state-of-the-art approaches in these aspects. Consequently, in this paper, we work on quantifying the security attributes, measures, and metrics of an e-government system using Attack Trees and Attack–Defense Trees—in this context, we build a working prototype of an e-government system aligned with the United Kingdom (UK) government portal, which is in line with our research scope. In particular, we propose a novel measure to quantify the probability of attack success using a risk matrix and normal distribution. The probabilistic analysis distinguishes the attack and defense levels more intuitively in e-government systems. Moreover, it infers the importance of enhancing security in e-government systems. In particular, the analysis shows that an e-government system is fairly unsafe with a 99% probability of being subject to attacks, and even with a defense mechanism, the probability of attack lies around 97%, which directs us to pay close attention to e-government security. In sum, our implications can serve as a benchmark for evaluation for governments to determine the next steps in consolidating e-government system security.

Mitigating mechanism of nZVI-C on the inhibition of anammox consortia under long-term tetracycline hydrochloride stress: Extracellular polymeric substance properties and microbial community evolution

In this study, activated carbon-loaded nano-zero-valent iron (nZVI-C) composites were added to anaerobic ammonium oxidation bacteria (AnAOB) to overcome the inhibition of tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH). Results showed that 500 mg L−1 nZVI-C effectively mitigated the long-term inhibition of 1.5 mg L−1 TCH on AnAOB and significantly improved the total nitrogen removal efficiency (TNRE) (from 65.27% to 86.99%). Spectroscopic analysis revealed that nZVI-C increased the content of N–H and CO groups in EPS, which contributed to the adsorption of TCH. The accumulation of humic acid-like substances in EPS was also conducive to strengthening the extracellular defense level. In addition, TCH-degrading bacteria (Clostridium and Mycobacterium) were enriched in situ, and the abundance of Ca. Brocadia was significantly increased (from 10.69% to 18.59%). Furthermore, nZVI-C increased the abundance of genes encoding tetracycline inactivation (tetX), promoted mineralization of TCH by 90%, weakening the inhibition of TCH on microbial nitrogen metabolism. nZVI-C accelerated the electron consumption of anammox bacteria by upregulating the abundance of electron generation genes (nxrA, hdh) and providing electrons directly.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis enhances perennial ryegrass growth during temperature stress through the modulation of antioxidant defense and hormone levels

Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) refers to a vital species of grass grown extensively as a biofuel and biochemical production across temperate regions. However, both low temperature (LT) and high temperature (HT) conditions are unfavorable for the development of this species, causing reduced forage yield. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are recognized for promoting host plants’ resistance to abiotic stresses via different mechanisms. However, the mechanism underlying the alleviation of plant damage induced by high-temperature stress and low-temperature stress by AM fungi remains to be elucidated so far. Therefore, the current work attempted to explore how the symbiosis with AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis (R. irregularis) affects the antioxidant activity and hormone levels in ryegrass under LT and HT stresses and reveals the molecular mechanisms. In addition, the contents of non-enzymatic antioxidants, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the activities of antioxidant enzymes, the genes encoding antioxidant enzymes, and the endogenous hormone-related genes in the perennial ryegrass inoculated with or without R. irregularis were analyzed upon exposure to LT and HT stresses. The results showed that inoculating AM plants with R. irregularis alleviated growth inhibition caused by LT and HT stress, as evidenced by significantly higher plant height, shoot and root dry weight, leaf chlorophyll and carotenoid content, net photosynthesis rate, and photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) in comparison to non- mycorrhizal (NM) plants under LT and HT stress. Under LT and HT conditions, AM symbiosis decreased electrolyte leakage (EL), malondialdehyde (MDA), H2O2, and abscisic acid (ABA) contents while significantly increasing the activities of our analyzed enzymes (with the exception of peroxidase (POD) in shoots and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in roots), AsA/DHA and GSH/GSSG ratio, gibberellic acid 3 (GA3), jasmonic acid (JA) and indoleacetic acid (IAA) contents in shoots and roots. R. irregularis inoculation significantly upregulated almost all genes encoding antioxidant enzyme we tested (except for LpGPX1, LpGPX3, and LpGR in shoots, which were unaffected by AM symbiosis in 3d LT treatment) and some related genes in JA biosynthetic pathway, gibberellin synthesis as well as auxin transport and signaling while down-regulated the biosynthesis and signaling genes involved in ABA.In general, the findings suggested that AM symbiosis regulated the antioxidant defense and the hormone levels in ryegrass, which consequently alleviated the temperature stress-induced plant inhibition.

Colony‐nesting gulls restrict activity levels of a native top carnivore during the breeding season

AbstractAlthough nesting in colonies can offer substantial reproductive benefits for many seabird species, increased visibility to predators remains a significant disadvantage for most colony‐breeders. To counteract this, some seabird species have evolved aggressive nest defense strategies to protect vulnerable eggs and chicks. Here, we used an experimental approach to test whether colony inhabitance by breeding gullsLarusspp. in western Norway impacts visitation rates of a native, mammalian predator, the Eurasian otterLutra lutraduring the breeding season. Camera traps were placed inside of and on the periphery of seabird colonies prior to the breeding season and left to run for one continuous year. Sighting frequency of otters on these cameras was compared to a control region free of gull nesting. We found that otter activity was significantly reduced in the colonies when gulls were incubating and rearing chicks, compared to time periods when gulls were building nests and absent from the colonies. Rhythmic activity patterns did not seem to be significantly impacted by the presence of gulls. This study provides clear evidence that certain colony‐nesting species can have a direct, negative impact on visitation rates of a native carnivore. Seasonal carnivore activity patterns are likely to be highly dependent on differing nesting strategies and level of nest defense by seabirds.

Why the World Health Organization should reconsider long lasting insecticide nets (LLIN) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) in primary mosquito/malaria control in favour of house screening

Mosquitoes spread malaria parasites in closed/open environment when they feed endophagously/ exophagously. Indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticide nets (LLIN) are control measures adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) that have not led to malaria elimination. Delay in defeating mosquito/malaria is attributed to WHO’s espousal of the last line of intervention that at-risk persons often ignore. Mosquito control methods will have to change if we must make progress in this direction. This paper shows that mosquitoes must survive four barriers before successfully attacking a host in a bed net. Correspondingly, indoor hosts have four levels of defenses where mosquitoes could be challenged albeit with increasing impediments. The first line of defense consists of net-screened windows, doors and eaves which circumscribe houses-outdoor environment. At-risk persons do not resist/refuse net-screening the openings in their houses. The last defensive intervention which most at-risk persons often resist most is sleeping in bed nets. The Achilles heel of IRS and LLIN include but not limited to vector resistance to insecticides, discomfort to beneficiaries, harm to non-target organisms, inequity in supply and distribution of control materials. List of advantages attributable to LLIN use has only 7 items whereas disadvantages have 37 items. House screening has better appeal to control mosquito/malaria indoors. The WHO should replace LLIN and IRS with house screening as the primary control method. Governments in endemic regions must use legislation to drive house screening especially with the s/o channel/grip devices that is accessible, cheap, effective and sustainable

Dibenzylideneacetone Induces Apoptosis in Cervical Cancer Cells through Ros-Mediated Mitochondrial Damage

Cervical cancer is a health problem among women worldwide. Considering the limitations of prevention and antineoplastic chemotherapy against cervical cancer, research is needed to discover new, more effective, and safe antitumor agents. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro cytotoxicity of a new synthetic dibenzylideneacetone derived from 1,5-diaryl-3-oxo-1,4-pentadienyl (A3K2A3) against cervical cancer cells immortalized by HPV 16 (SiHa), and 18 (HeLa) by MTT assay. Furthermore, we performed spectrofluorimetry, flow cytometry, and Western blot analyzes to explore the inhibitory mechanism of A3K2A3 in cervical cancer cells. A3K2A3 showed cytotoxic activity against both cell lines. Mitochondrial depolarization and reduction in intracellular ATP levels were observed, which may be dependent on the redox imbalance between increased ROS and reduced levels of the antioxidant defense. In addition, damage to the cell membrane and DNA, and effective blocking of cell division in the G2/M phase were detected, which possibly led to the induction of apoptosis. This result was further confirmed by the upregulation of apoptosis-related proteins Bax, cytochrome C, and caspases 9 and 3. Our results provided the first evidence that A3K2A3 contributes to the suppression of cervical cancer in vitro, showing promise as a possible alternative for the treatment of this cancer.

Physiological and Ultrastructural Changes in Dendranthema morifolium Cultivars Exposed to Different Cadmium Stress Conditions

Ornamental plant species may vary substantially in their tolerance response to heavy metals. The aim of this research was to check chrysanthemum cultivars, namely Donglin Ruixue (C), Yellow (F), Red pocket (G), and New 9714 (I), which are commonly used as landscape plants to determine their levels of cadmium (Cd) tolerance at different cadmium concentrations through hydroponic cultures. Chrysanthemum cultivars were treated with five different Cd concentrations (0, 10, 20, 50, and 100 mg L−1) and different physiological, enzymatic, and ultra-structure traits were taken under consideration in vitro. The results showed that cadmium concentration significantly inhibited the total chlorophyll content, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid content. Chlorophyll contents were significantly reduced at higher Cd concentrations in all cultivars, but the reduction rates were higher in cultivar F (59.49%), G (40.41%), I (44.97%), and C (33.86%). Similarly, the chlorophyll b reduction was higher than that of chlorophyll a in I (73.33%), followed by G (58.06%), F (61.66%), and C (32.43%), under Cd stress conditions. Additionally, the relative conductivity was recorded in cultivars C (146.48%), F (223.66%), G (165.96%), and I (154.92%), respectively, at 100 mg L−1 Cd concentrations. Likewise, MDA was significantly increased with high Cd stress, at 155.56, 325.27, 173.91, and 322.18%, in C, F, G, and I cultivars at 100 mg L−1, but it was promoted with a greater increase in F and I cultivars. Similarly, SOD and CAT activities were increased with the increase in Cd stress, but reduced in F and I cultivars at higher stress levels of 100 mg L−1. In the same way, POD activity was significantly higher in the C and G cultivars. Additionally, ultrastructure changes also occurred with the increase in the Cd stress, i.e., 20 mg L−1 to 100 mg L−1, and these changes caused alterations in cell organelles, including in the chloroplast, grana, lamella, thylakoid, and stroma. They also caused noticeable damage to mitochondria at higher Cd concentrations. It was concluded that the higher levels of antioxidative defense of the C and G cultivars of chrysanthemum indicated their ability to tolerate high Cd stress conditions. These could, therefore, be used for their phytoremediation potential in Cd-contaminated areas.

The flowering time regulator FLK controls pathogen defense in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Plant disease resistance is a complex process that is maintained in an intricate balance with development. Increasing evidence indicates the importance of posttranscriptional regulation of plant defense by RNA binding proteins. In a genetic screen for suppressors of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) accelerated cell death 6-1 (acd6-1), a small constitutive defense mutant whose defense level is grossly in a reverse proportion to plant size, we identified an allele of the canonical flowering regulatory gene FLOWERING LOCUS K HOMOLOGY DOMAIN (FLK) encoding a putative protein with triple K homology (KH) repeats. The KH repeat is an ancient RNA binding motif found in proteins from diverse organisms. The relevance of KH-domain proteins in pathogen resistance is largely unexplored. In addition to late flowering, the flk mutants exhibited decreased resistance to the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae and increased resistance to the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. We further found that the flk mutations compromised basal defense and defense signaling mediated by salicylic acid (SA). Mutant analysis revealed complex genetic interactions between FLK and several major SA pathway genes. RNA-seq data showed that FLK regulates expression abundance of some major defense- and development-related genes as well as alternative splicing of a number of genes. Among the genes affected by FLK is ACD6, whose transcripts had increased intron retentions influenced by the flk mutations. Thus, this study provides mechanistic support for flk suppression of acd6-1 and establishes that FLK is a multifunctional gene involved in regulating pathogen defense and development of plants.

Global-scale analysis of socioeconomic impacts of coastal flooding over the 21st century

Building on a global database of projected extreme coastal flooding over the coming century, an extensive analysis that accounts for both existing levels of coastal defences (structural measures) and two scenarios for future changes in defence levels is undertaken to determine future expected annual people affected (EAPA) and expected annual damage (EAD). A range of plausible future climate change scenarios is considered along with narratives for socioeconomic change. We find that with no further adaptation, global EAPA could increase from 34M people/year in 2015 to 246M people/year by 2100. Global EAD could increase from 0.3% of global GDP today to 2.9% by 2100. If, however, coastal defences are increased at a rate which matches the projected increase in extreme sea level, by 2100, the total EAPA is reduced to 119M people/year and the EAD will be reduced by a factor of almost three to 1.1% of GDP. The impacts of such flooding will disproportionately affect the developing world. By 2100, Asia, West Africa and Egypt will be the regions most impacted. If no adaptation actions are taken, many developing nations will experience EAD greater than 5% of GDP, whilst almost all developed nations will experience EAD less than 3% of GDP.

Does capital adequacy ratio matter during the Covid-19 outbreak? Evidence on state-owned banks in Indonesia

The Covid-19 epidemic has brought significant changes in the financial performance of the Indonesian banking sector. Weak economic indicators lead to a reduction in bank capital due to insufficient working capital loans. This study was conducted to find out changes in the capital adequacy ratio of state-owned banks in Indonesia during the Covid-19 pandemic. The data set is based on quarterly financial reports of state-owned banks for the 2020-2021 period. We prove that lending and NPL have an effect on CAR. In condition, there was a significant decrease in credit and a significant increase in non-performing loans starting in the third quarter of 2020 and increased slightly in the third quarter of 2021. Meanwhile, the capital adequacy ratio tends to be stable, because the government has strengthened bank capital. The study shows that state-owned banks can maintain CAR consistently and safely. This level of safe defense increases capital consistently in line with growth in lending while maintaining banking industry regulations.

Changes in spinescence across leaf ontogeny support the optimal defence hypothesis in blackberries (Rubus adenotrichos)

Abstract Hypotheses based on allocation theory and herbivore selection offer opposite predictions about how defence levels against herbivores change as the plant tissue grows. The growth differentiation balance hypothesis (GDBH) assumes that defences will be resource-limited in immature tissues and predict that defence levels increase as the plant tissue grows. Conversely, the optimal defence hypothesis (ODH) proposes that plants would have the highest level of defences in the parts that have the highest value in terms of fitness and/or are more frequently attacked by herbivores, such as young tissues. We examine whether spinescence in the shrub Rubus adenotrichos (blackberry) change as the leaf grows, and if this change is consistent with the GDBH or the ODH. We compare the petiole area occupied by prickles, the prickles density and the individual prickle area in mature versus young petioles from Rubus adenotrichos. Our results show that, in R. adenotrichos, young tissues are more protected than mature tissues. Prickles density and the petiole area occupied by prickles were up to 25% higher in young petioles than in mature ones. These results support the ODH, reinforcing the idea that extrinsic factors such as herbivores pressure might drive the change of structural defences level across leaf ontogeny.

A Game-Theoretic Method for Defending Against Advanced Persistent Threats in Cyber Systems

Advanced persistent threats (APTs) are one of today’s major threats to cyber security. Highly determined attackers along with novel and evasive exfiltration techniques mean APT attacks elude most intrusion detection and prevention systems. The result has been significant losses for governments, organizations, and commercial entities. Intriguingly, despite greater efforts to defend against APTs in recent times, frequent upgrades in defense strategies are not leading to increased security and protection. In this paper, we demonstrate this phenomenon in an appropriately designed APT rivalry game that captures the interactions between attackers and defenders. What is shown is that the defender’s strategy adjustments actually leave useful information for the attackers, and thus intelligent and rational attackers can improve themselves by analyzing this information. Hence, a critical part of one’s defense strategy must be finding a suitable time to adjust one’s strategy to ensure attackers learn the least possible information. Another challenge for defenders is determining how to make the best use of one’s resources to achieve a satisfactory defense level. In support of these efforts, we figured out the optimal timings of a player’s strategy adjustment in terms of information leakage, which form a family of Nash equilibria. Moreover, two learning mechanisms are proposed to help defenders find an appropriate defense level and allocate their resources reasonably. One is based on adversarial bandits, and the other is based on deep reinforcement learning. Experimental simulations show the rationales behind the game and the optimality of the equilibria. The results also demonstrate that players indeed have the ability to improve themselves by learning from past experiences, which shows the necessity of specifying optimal strategy adjustment timings when defending against APTs.

CAPACIDADE DE REAÇÃO DOS ATLETAS NO DESEMPENHO DURANTE A COMPETIÇÃO DE VÔLEI

ABSTRACT Introduction: Volleyball is a technical and team game where individual physical conditioning of the athletes has a fundamental role in the competition. The maintenance of this physical conditioning includes the optimization of physical function and the gain of body resistance. The ability to respond in front of a defensive game in the game of volleyball is one of the main keys to determining their defensive skills and overall defensive level. Objective: Investigate the reflexes of volleyball players during an athletic competition match. Methods: This was done by analyzing the avoidance rate and reaction time of 14 volunteers, volleyball players. The experimental method quantitatively measured the individuals’ defense ability and reaction time. Finally, the statistical correlation test was used to obtain the correlation between the two results. Results: The practice time with games had a more significant impact on the performance of volleyball players. The players’ cut-off point is limited to the lowest level. Their peaks have little effect on the defense rate of volleyball. Ball height shows that the index has a very good relationship with defensive ability. Conclusion: Reaction time in volleyball can be used to judge the level of player defense and select the most appropriate players for each moment of competition. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

НЕСПЕЦИФИЧЕСКАЯ ГУМОРАЛЬНАЯ И КЛЕТОЧНАЯ ЗАЩИТА В РАЗНЫЕ ПЕРИОДЫ РЕПРОДУКТИВНОГО ЦИКЛА У СВИНОМАТОК С ПОСЛЕРОДОВОЙ ПАТОЛОГИЕЙ

The article presents the results of the study on non-specific resistance in sows at different periods of the repro-ductive cycle in the conditions of an industrial pig-breeding complex. It has been established that in the animals that fell ill after farrowing, before insemination and during gestation, the level of humoral and cellular defense is lower than that in clinically healthy sows, indicating a risk of inflammatory processes developing in the reproductive system, which manifest themselves clinically as endometritis and MMA after farrowing. During lactation, sows that had postpartum diseases also had lower nonspecific resistance indicators than clinically healthy animals.

Role Of Pathogenesis-Related (PR) Proteins in Plant Microbes Defence Mechanism

A group of diverse substances called PR proteins and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are produced by phytopathogens and signalling molecules connected to defence. They are crucial elements of the plant's innate immune system, particularly in the case of molecular markers for defensive signalling pathways called systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Although PR proteins and peptides were discovered prior to the development of modern scientific tools, little is known about their biological significance. One of the most promising methods for creating disease-resistant transgenic crops uses plant genetic engineering, which makes use of several antimicrobial genes like PR genes. Overexpression of the PR genes (chitinase, glucanase, thaumatin, defensin, and thionin) singly or in combination has a major impact on the level of plant defence against many diseases. However, enhancing agricultural plants' resistance to a variety of stresses requires a detailed understanding of the signalling pathways that regulate the expression of these adaptive proteins. This is the topic of plant stress biology, which will be covered in the future. Since PR proteins are involved in both biotic and abiotic stress, as well as plant defence signalling pathways, this analysis gives a thorough review of PR proteins. Additionally, we talked about the advantages and disadvantages of transgenic plants, PR proteins, and peptide expression.