Aquila Pomarina Research Articles

Reproductive success, selected nest characteristics and the effectiveness of establishing protection zones of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) population in Slovakia

Abstract In 2011–201 4 monitoring of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) breeding population was conducted in eight special protection areas in Slovakia. From a total of 272 successful breeding attempts by 1 49 breeding pairs during 4 breeding seasons 277 young birds were fledged. The average reproductive success ratio was thus 0.51 juv./pair present, 0.69 juv./breeding pair and 1 .37 juv./1 00 km2. In the surveyed period a total of 1 51 protection zones were established around the nests in 11 9 breeding territories, which provided protection for 1 7% of the breeding population of the lesser spotted eagle in Slovakia. By testing the effectiveness of protection zones it was determined that in nests with an established protection zone the probability of successful raising of young is higher in comparison with nests without such a zone. The probability that breeding will be successful in the nests of breeding pairs without a protection zone was 48.1% (95% confidence intervals (CIs): 37.4–59.0%), and in nests with a protection zone 64.8% (95% CIs: 59.8–69.6%). Among the five most frequent nest tree species used by A. pomarina in Slovakia for breeding are Picea abies 61 × (28.4%), Pinus sylvestris 45× (20.9%), Quercus sp. 36× (1 6.7%), Fagus sylvatica 25× (11 .6%) and Abies alba 1 8× (8.4%). Among the rarer nest tree species used are Larix decidua 1 2× (5.6%) and Alnus glutinosa 3× (1 .4%), while a further 11 species of nest trees did not achieve even 1%. The highest number of nest trees (n = 21 5), i.e. 34 nests (1 5.8%), was found in the altitude range of 401–450 m a.s.l. and 29 nests (1 3.5%) at 351–400 m a.s.l. Other altitude zones were all below the 1 0% mark. A total of 54% of nests found (11 6 nests) are located in the altitude zone of 301–600 m a.s.l., and 71 nests (33%) in the zone 600–900 m a.s.l. The lowest situated nest was at an altitude of 1 50 m and the highest at 950 m; the average was 595.01 m a.s.l. The highest number of nests (n = 209) were located on trees in a range 1 5.1–20.0 m above the ground (n = 92, 44%), while the lowest nest found was at a height of 5 m and the highest at 30 m above the ground.

International Conference on the Conservation of the Lesser Spotted Eagle, Košická Belá, Slovakia, 2014

Abstract The International Conference on the Conservation of the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) was held on September 25-27, 2014 in Lesanka Gesthouse at Košická Belá, Slovakia. It was organised by Raptor Protection of Slovakia (RPS) in cooperation with Východoslovenská energetika Holding a.s. The conference dealt with (i) delivering further inputs for updating the European Action Plan for the species, (ii) sharing information on biology and ecology of the species, and (iii) exchange of experience with best practice and innovative species conservation measures. A total of 59 participants from 1 4 countries attended the conference. The agenda included 17 presentations and 7 posters. Some of the contributions are published in Slovak Raptor Journal volume 9 (2015) as full papers, and a further 23 contributions are published as abstracts. The conference also included two field trips during which participants had the opportunity to observe the installation of console barriers on poles of 22 kV power lines, and typical habitats of the lesser spotted eagle. The conference was organized within the framework of the project LIFE09NAT/SK/000396 Conservation of Aquila pomarina in Slovakia, implemented by Raptor Protection of Slovakia, Východoslovenská energetika Holding a.s., Stredoslovenská energetika, a.s. and Stredoslovenská energetika-Distribúcia, a.s. The project was cofinanced by EU-LIFE and the Ministry for Environment of the Slovak Republic.

Population size, dynamics and reproduction success of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) in Latvia

Abstract We analysed the population size, population dynamics and reproduction success of the lesser spotted eagle in Latvia from 1988 to 2014. While the overall population did not show a statistically significant trend during any of the periods analysed (long, medium and short term), the populations in the individual study areas changed differently: of five research plots, populations were stable in two, increased in one, and decreased in two research plots. Using the existing research plots as samples of breeding numbers in areas of different breeding density classes based on forest management units, the total breeding population in Latvia was estimated. The overall number of breeding pairs in 2012-2014 was between 3700-4000. During the period 1988-2014, 65.62% of all pairs recorded as present on their home range, made a breeding attempt and laid eggs. The reproductive success ratio was 0.49 young per occupied territory with an adult pair of birds and 0.74 young per breeding pair which laid eggs. Overall, during the 21 -year research period there was a stable long-term trend in reproductive success (young per pair present on home range). Rarely, indeed only in 1 .89% of all cases did two young fledge. The total number of young (young per 100 km2) shows stable long-, medium- and short-term trends with an average value of 5.1 young per 100 km2.

Monitoring of spotted eagles in Estonia in 1994–2014: Stability of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) and decline of the greater spotted eagle (A. clanga)

Abstract Population trends of the lesser and greater spotted eagle in Estonia were comparatively estimated using data obtained in 1994-2014 from the monitoring scheme of common raptors and from special plots for monitoring of spotted eagles. Both approaches had pros and cons, but resulted in similar population trends. The numbers of the lesser spotted eagle have had minor fluctuations over the last two decades but the overall trend is stable; the current population size is estimated as 600-700 pairs. The number of greater spotted eagle breeding territories (pure-species and mixed pairs pooled) have significantly decreased, for example by 14% per year in 2004-2010, though in recent years the numbers seem to be stabilised at a critically low level. The decline of pure-species pairs was somewhat steeper than that ofmixed pairs, their proportion decreasing from a third to a quarter of the greater spotted eagle breeding territories. Altogether 5-10 breeding territories of the greater spotted eagle may be found nowadays in Estonia.

Abstracts of contributions presented at the International Conference on the Conservation of the Lesser Spotted Eagle, Slovakia, 2014

Abstract The International Conference on the Conservation of the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) was held on September 25-27, 2014 in Lesanka Guesthouse at Košická Belá, Slovakia. The Conference was organized within the framework of the project LIFE09NAT/SK/000396 Conservation of Aquila pomarina in Slovakia, implemented by Raptor Protection of Slovakia, Východoslovenská energetika, a.s., Stredoslovenská energetika, a.s., and Stredoslovenská energetika - Distribúcia, a.s. This project was cofinanced by EU-LIFE and the Ministry for the Environment of the Slovak Republic. A total of 59 participants from 14 countries attended the conference. The conference agenda included 17 presentations and 7 posters. Some of the contributions are published in Slovak Raptor Journal volume 9 (2015) as full papers, and a further 23 contributions are published here as conference abstracts.

Current situation and population trend of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) in Hungary

Abstract First reports on the population of the lesser spotted eagle in Hungary appeared between 1978 and 1982, and based on these data, we estimate that their population was about 90 pairs during that period. By 2014 this number had decreased to below 40 pairs. The species disappeared from its former nesting sites in the lowlands, riparian habitats and also in a few hilly and mountainous areas. The reasons for its decline appear complex in Hungary. Changes in agricultural practice are suspected of being one of the main reasons which are discussed in the article. We presume that populations of prey species were also negatively affected. Decrease in undisturbed forest stands older than 100 years was probably also a significant factor affecting nesting habitats. As a marginal population, it greatly depends on the larger ones in the surrounding countries, and it is also affected by mortality during migration. Positive changes in the past four years in agricultural land use have already caused a slight increase in their numbers. Main tasks for the near future should be the establishment of a special support scheme focusing on the species’ foraging habitats.

Abundance, distribution and trend of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) breeding population in Slovakia

Abstract Several estimates of the lesser spotted eagle breeding population in Slovakia were published in 1955-2002. In this study we estimate the breeding population of the lesser spotted eagle by 1997 and 2014. By 1997, the estimated size of the breeding population was 762 pairs. In 2002 an estimate of the population size by 2000 was published at 800-900 pairs. By 2014 we estimate the breeding population of the lesser spotted eagle in Slovakia at 600-800 pairs and the declining population trend in 2000-2013 at -23%. Our estimate is supported by the extrapolation from data obtained in 2011-2013 in eight selected Special Protection Areas (SPAs) within a framework of the project LIFE09 NAT/SK/000396 “Conservation of Aquila pomarina in Slovakia”. When analyzing abundance, density and trends in the species’ entire breeding range in Slovakia we first summarised the numbers of breeding pairs, their densities and trends within the selected SPAs and then explored the differences among them using ANOVA and cluster analysis. For the eight SPAs as a whole (n = 8) or partitioned by a grid of the Databank of Slovak Fauna (n = 119 squares) we calculated the interval estimates of the mean number of pairs (unweighted and weighted arithmetic means and medians). By summarising these estimates and extrapolating to the species’ entire breeding range in Slovakia (c. 28,935 km2) while increasing the sample size (n = 8, 9, 11 and 1 2 SPAs), the size estimates stabilise at a level of 670 (mean with 95%LCL = 507 and 95%UCL = 834) or 765 (median with 95%LCL = 393 and 95%UCL = 841 ) breeding pairs. The most reliable estimate of the breeding population of the lesser spotted eagle in Slovakia by 2014 is a median of 765 pairs with a 95% confidence interval from 393 to 841 pairs and an interquartile range from 418 to 835 pairs. We estimate a 23% decrease in the breeding population during 2000-2013, i.e. a small decrease -1 (20-49%). Three methods of estimating were used: 1 ) comparing the numbers of pairs in the selected SPAs between 2000 and 2014 - indicates a decrease of -26%; 2) comparing the numbers of pairs from long-term monitoring in five areas (orographic units Vihorlatské vrchy Mts, Laborecká vrchovina Upland, Volovské vrchy Mts, Orava and Horné Ponitrie Regions) by the 1990s and 2014 - indicates a decrease of -20%; 3) comparing the numbers of pairs by 1997 in selected areas within the boundaries of the current SPAs with the number of pairs in the same SPAs by 2014 - indicates a decrease of -23%. In the eight selected SPAs the estimated decline was even more pronounced, reaching a median trend of -35% in the 95% confidence interval from -54% to +25%. The estimate by 1997 fits in with an increasing trend of published breeding population estimates in Slovakia during 1955-2002. The estimate by 2014 is lower than the estimate by 2000, and for the first time ever a declining trend is recorded. By 2014 the breeding grounds of the lesser spotted eagle in Slovakia embrace an area of c. 28,935 km2. Taking an estimate of 600-800 breeding pairs, the mean density varies between 2.1-2.8 pairs.100 km-2.

Revealing unexpected uses of space by wintering Aquila pomarina: how does satellite telemetry identify behaviour at different scales?

Little is understood about the dispersion and movements of Palaearctic migrant raptors while wintering in southern Africa. The high temporal and spatial resolution of GPS telemetry data provided the opportunity to describe how space is used by one such migratory raptor in its wintering range, the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina. Kernel density estimation was used to map the distribution of three individuals at various spatial scales. In addition to their extremely large overall wintering range (up to 112 000 km2), three finer levels of spatial concentration were identified: favoured activity zones where the birds spent much of the winter, smaller core areas to which the birds returned each year, and tiny intensive foraging clusters. Philopatry was demonstrated by one bird which revisited core areas over eight wintering seasons. The same core areas, particularly the Waterberg, Grootfontein (Namibia) and the eastern and western sides of the Okavango Delta (Botswana), were visited by two other eagles in 2012/2013, although not simultaneously. Such results potentially provide important information on areas where conservation activities might be focused to mitigate human degradation of habitat.

Hybridisation Dynamics between the Greater Spotted EaglesAquila clangaand Lesser Spotted EaglesAquila pomarinain the Biebrza River Valley (NE Poland)

We studied a sympatric and crossbreeding population of the Lesser and the Greater Spotted Eagle in the Biebrza Valley, NE Poland. In order to follow the dynamics of hybridisation and its possible causes we monitored these two species between 1996 and 2012, using visual and genetic species identification. Individuals in up to 51 territories annually were determined as one of the two species or as a hybrid according to plumage characteristics. Feathers from adults and chicks from 114 broods were collected and genotyped using 30 nuclear markers. Hybridisation was observed with both methods already at the beginning of the study, and showed a significantly increasing trend. The proportion of broods producing hybrids of the Greater and the Lesser Spotted Eagle increased during the study by over 30%. The percentage of territories occupied by pure Greater Spotted Eagle pairs declined to 50% at the end of the study. The increasing number of mixed pairs highly significantly correlated with the decreasing number of pairs of the rare Greater Spotted Eagle, but weakly with the numbers of the more common Lesser Spotted Eagle. Mate replacement was frequently recorded and favoured the Lesser Spotted Eagle or hybrids. Adult males were the most often replaced sex (71%), possibly due to their higher mortality. Sex ratio at the nestling stage did not diverge from 1:1. Overall, 13 cases of within-pair species composition change were recorded, leading mostly to hybridisation (61%), but sometimes also to re-establishment of pure A. clanga pairs (23%). Alteration of habitat towards that preferred by the Lesser Spotted Eagle and differential sex-mortality are discussed as the most possible causes of the increasing crossbreeding rate.

Bazı Yabani Kuşların Beyin Dokularında Toxoplasma gondii ve Neospora caninum’un Moleküler Tanısı

There are limited molecular studies about Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum which are economically important livestock protozoons in wild birds investigated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. Molecular prevalance of both parasites in brain tissues of wild birds in Turkey is unknown. Prevalance of T. gondii was 7%, N. caninum was 14% and mix infection was found 4% in brain tissues of 101 wild birds under 20 species from two different regions of Turkey. The chi-square test has been applied to the acquired data. This is the first molecular biologic investigation for the aim of PCR diagnosis of T. gondii in brain tissues of Corvus corone, Melanitta fusca, Aquila heliaca, Aquila pomarina, Buteo rufinus, Accipiter nisus, Strix aluco and N. caninum in brain tissues of Larus genei, Corvus corone, Melanitta fusca, Anas clypeata, Perdix perdix, Aquila heliaca, Buteo rufinus in the world. This also is the first molecular diagnostic investigation of T. gondii and N. caninum in brain tissues of wild birds in Turkey.

Water regime as a key factor differentiating habitats of spotted eagles Aquila clanga and Aquila pomarina in Biebrza Valley (NE Poland)

Capsule Foraging sites of Aquila clanga compared to Aquila pomarina are characterized by a considerably longer duration of flooding within the year and higher mean and maximum depths of flooding. A. clanga is particularly associated with shallow (approx. 20 cm) spring flooding, lasting at least up to the beginning of May (on average up to 90 days per year). Variation in habitat selection with respect to water regime might be due to different food preferences and adaptation to landscape differences in the ranges of these two species.

Особенности территориального распределения и численности соколообразных в Харьковской области, Украина

This study investigates the features of the spatial distribution and abundance of birds of prey in the Kharkov region, Ukraine. Investigations were carried out in 2003–2013 years. Totaly we found 1569 nest sites of Falconiformes. There are 29 species of raptors in avifauna of Kharkiv region. Nine of them are wintering species and 16 – nesting. The highest number of nest sites we found in agricultural landscapes – 677 pairs. However, population density here is low, and high number of nest sites can be explained by large extension of this type of habitat. Also significant populations of birds of prey inhabit forest-steppe areas of Central Russian Upland (East European Plain) – 468 pairs, steppe areas of Central Russian Upland – at least 279 pairs (notable that the size of steppe areas are 4 times smaller then forest-steppe areas), and gully forests on the spurs of Donets Ridge – 205 pairs (the size of this habitat in Kharkiv region is no more than 3 000 km 2 ). The other habitats includes highlands in the forest-steppe zone covered with oak forests – 431 pairs, and floodplain forests in the valley of river Siverskyi Donets – 148 pairs (with rather small area of this habitat). These last two habitats are refuge for local populations of Booted Eagle ( Hieraaetus pennata ) and Honey Buzzard ( Pernis apivorus ) because these areas held the most stable nest sites and the highest density of these two species. The same could be said about gully forests on the spurs of Donets Ridge. The estimate number of breeding pairs of Falconiformes in gully forests is around 290 pairs. In this study, we also assessed the total number of breeding Birds of Prey in Kharkiv region. Here are our estimates: Honey Buzzard – 142–156 pairs, Black Kite ( Milvus migrans ) – 133–148 pairs, White-Tailed Eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) – 26–28 pairs, Montagu’s Harrier ( Circus pygargus ) – 174–191, Marsh Harrier ( C. aeruginosus ) – 344–359, Northern Goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) – 214–224, Eurasian Sparrowhawk ( Ac. nisus ) – 336–365, Common Buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) – 1000–1050, Long-Legged Buzzard ( B. rufinus ) – 185–190, Short-Toed Eagle ( Circaetus gallicus ) – no more than 6 pairs, Booted Eagle – 119–124, Eastern Imperial Eagle ( Aquila heliaca ) – 56–60, Greater Spotted Eagle ( A. clanga ) – 3–4, Lesser Spotted Eagle ( A. pomarina ) – 10–11, Hobby ( Falco subbuteo ) – 160–175, Common Kestrel ( F. tinnunculus ) – 297–320 pairs.

Bird Diversity and Distribution in relation to Urban Landscape Types in Northern Rwanda

Using the point count method, linear mixed models, Shannon's diversity index, and Bray-Curtis cluster analysis, we conducted a study of the effect of urban fabric layout on bird diversity and distribution in northern Rwanda. The results showed a significant effect of city landscapes on bird richness and relative abundance; residential neighborhoods, institutional grounds, and informal settlements had the highest species diversity in comparison to other microlandscape types. Riversides were characterized by specialized bird species, commonly known to be restricted to wetland environments. Built-up areas and open field landscapes had comparable results. One Albertine Rift endemic bird species, the Ruwenzori Double-collared Sunbird (Cinnyris stuhlmanni), was recorded. Three migratory birds were found in Musanze city for the first time: the Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos), the Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata), and the Willow Warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus). Two bird species have not been previously reported in Rwanda: the Garden Warbler (Sylvia borin) and the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina). The implications of this study are particularly relevant to urban decision makers who should consider the existence of a great diversity of avian fauna when developing and implementing master plans, especially when villages and cities are in proximity of protected areas or natural reserves.

Colour ringing programme of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) population in Slovakia and its new results in the period 2009–2012

Abstract In the years 2009-2012 a total of 316 individuals were marked in a colour ringing programme of the population ofA. pomarina in Slovakia. From this a total of 39 inds. were ringed with yellow readable plastic rings with a two-place alphanumeric code (all young in a nest) and 277 inds. (273 young and 4 adult inds.) with light-blue rings. For the entire period of the programme of marking the A. pomarina population in Slovakia in the years 2000-2012 a total of 952 inds. were ringed, 933 of which were young birds in nest and 19 adult individuals. In the period 2009-2012 48 records were obtained from observations of 35 individuals of different age categories (31 individuals from one to 11 years old, three of unknown age and one young individual about one month after fledging the nest). The age categories of immature individuals were determined, and six were found to be one-year-old individuals (12.5%) in the second calendar year of life after their first return from wintering grounds, six were two-year-old eagles (12.5%) and five were three-year-old eagles (10.4%) which spent breeding periods in Europe at a relatively small distance from their place of hatching. Adult individuals were found to be in their current breeding grounds at distances of 8-249 km from their hatching place. In the period 2000-2012 three individuals were recorded 3× and four individuals 2×. The results confirm breeding site fidelity in adults, but also the fidelity of immature individuals to their hatching place, and the return of one-year-old individuals from their wintering grounds to the vicinity of their hatching place immediately in the first year of life (that is, in the second calendar year).

Young of the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) reared by lesser spotted eagles (Aquila pomarina) in natural conditions in Slovakia

Abstract Since 2005 a breeding pair of A. pomarina has been observed near the village of Drienovec, Košice-Environs district, eastern Slovakia. Since 2009 occupied nests have been found each year with the subject pair. In the years 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2013 this pair successfully reared one young A. pomarina, but in 2012 they reared two B. buteo young during the nesting period in natural conditions and without the intervention of human beings. This is the first such documented case in the entire breeding grounds ofA. pomarina.

Habitat alteration enables hybridisation between Lesser Spotted and Greater Spotted Eagles in north-east Poland

SummaryWetlands in the Biebrza Valley, north-east Poland, are inhabited by two closely related Aquila species: the more numerous Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina prefers human-transformed landscapes, whereas the very rare Greater Spotted Eagle A. clanga is associated with natural marshy landscapes. At least since the last decade of the 20th century, these two species have been known to hybridise in the broad zone of their sympatric occurrence in Europe. The aim of the present study was to compare habitat preferences of both spotted eagle species in order to detect which environmental factors could increase the probability of hybridisation. We analysed nesting and hunting habitats for 148 breeding territories (61 of A. pomarina, 56 of A. clanga and 31 of mixed pairs). As expected, the presence of breeding Greater Spotted Eagles was associated with non-transformed marshy landscapes, whereas Lesser Spotted Eagles clearly preferred human-transformed areas. We hypothesised that mixed pairs should occur in intermediate habitat, confirming this assumption by analysing several variables: distance to human settlements, distance to open areas, and proportion of wetlands, shrublands, grasslands, agricultural mosaic and arable land. Results of this study suggest that some landscape changes can enable two species with different habitat requirements to inhabit the same area and hybridise. This scenario has potential conservation implications for the rarer species, Greater Spotted Eagle, which has narrower habitat preferences.

Evaluating the Connectivity of a Protected Areas' Network under the Prism of Global Change: The Efficiency of the European Natura 2000 Network for Four Birds of Prey

Climate and land use changes are major threats to biodiversity. To preserve biodiversity, networks of protected areas have been established worldwide, like the Natura 2000 network across the European Union (EU). Currently, this reserve network consists of more than 26000 sites covering more than 17% of EU terrestrial territory. Its efficiency to mitigate the detrimental effects of land use and climate change remains an open research question. Here, we examined the potential current and future geographical ranges of four birds of prey under scenarios of both land use and climate changes. By using graph theory, we examined how the current Natura 2000 network will perform in regard to the conservation of these species. This approach determines the importance of a site in regard to the total network and its connectivity. We found that sites becoming unsuitable due to climate change are not a random sample of the network, but are less connected and contribute less to the overall connectivity than the average site and thus their loss does not disrupt the full network. Hence, the connectivity of the remaining network changed only slightly from present day conditions. Our findings highlight the need to establish species-specific management plans with flexible conservation strategies ensuring protection under potential future range expansions. Aquila pomarina is predicted to disappear from the southern part of its range and to become restricted to northeastern Europe. Gyps fulvus, Aquila chrysaetos, and Neophron percnopterus are predicted to locally lose some suitable sites; hence, some isolated small populations may become extinct. However, their geographical range and metapopulation structure will remain relatively unaffected throughout Europe. These species would benefit more from an improved habitat quality and management of the existing network of protected areas than from increased connectivity or assisted migration.

Factors Limiting Reproductive Performance and Nestling Sex Ratio in the Lesser Spotted EagleAquila pomarinaat the Northern Limit of Its Range: the Impact of Weather and Prey Abundance

Weather conditions and prey abundance impact many birds, but the influence differs between species and regions. I used 18-year data from Estonia, north-eastern Europe, in order to analyse the comparative effects of these factors on the breeding performance and nestling sex ratio in the Lesser Spotted Eagle. All studied reproductive parameters showed strong inter-annual fluctuations but no significant trends. Breeding frequency (proportion of pairs laying) was positively influenced by a warm pre-laying period (temperature in April) and a wet preceding season. These factors are probably associated with the higher occurrence and activity of amphibians that constituted important prey of the Lesser Spotted Eagle in spring. Breeding success (proportion of successful breeders) was determined mostly by the abundance of voles. Productivity (number of fledglings per nest) depended additively both on the spring temperature and abundance of voles in the breeding season; fledging of two nestlings was recorded regularly, mostly in years with high vole abundance. The total offspring sex ratio was slightly, though non-significantly, female-biased. Annual proportion of female nestlings was positively correlated with reproductive parameters and associated with rain in the preceding season, suggesting determination of fledgling sex ratio prior egg-laying. The results help to explain fluctuations in the reproductive performance of the Lesser Spotted Eagle and should be taken into account when monitoring and managing for conservation of this species.

An example of passive dispersal of land snails by birds - short note

A fully developed, intact shell of Cochlicopa lubrica (O. F. Mull.) was found in the nest of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina). It was most probably brought accidentally with the nest-building or nest-lining material. This is a new way of dispersal by birds, besides the well-known cases of carrying snail individuals on birds’ legs or feathers.

South West Georgia: An Important Bottleneck for Raptor Migration during Autumn

Counts of migrating raptors at Batumi, Georgia, revealed the eastern Black Sea coast to form one of the most important bottlenecks for raptor migration during autumn in the Eurasian-African migration system. Totals for 10 species (European Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus, Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus, Black Kite Milvus migrans, Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes, Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus, Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus, Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina, Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga, Booted Eagle Aquila pennata) exceeded 1% of their estimated world population. We compare the observed abundance of each species to estimates of the presumed source populations in European Russia. Counts of most species involved only a limited subset of these source populations, except for European Honey-buzzard and Lesser Spotted Eagle, which were more numerous than predicted. This could be due to inaccurate population estimates or because birds from NE Europe or W Asia are also using this migration route.