Lesser Caucasus Research Articles

Fortified Communities in the South Caucasus: Insights from Mtsvane Gora and Dmanisis Gora

ABSTRACT Fortresses are defining features of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age landscape in the South Caucasus, with hundreds of sites recorded in archaeological surveys in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, and northeastern Turkey. Yet, research on how these communities functioned is dominated by evidence from the small fraction of these sites that have been excavated, and regional variability remains underexplored. This paper discusses excavations at two such fortresses in the Lesser Caucasus borderlands and contextualizes them within global discussions about fortresses and their associated communities. Analysis of architecture, ceramics, and small finds identified evidence for a diverse range of activities within these compounds, including both craft production and ritual activity. While the size and construction of the two fortresses differ, the evidence for significant occupation at both suggests that these fortresses were durable communities, not temporary refugia. Further work is necessary, however, to assess whether these fortresses were highly ordered institutions centralized under elite rule or heterarchical communities joined by common interest.

The Role of Fractional Crystallization in the Formation of Neogene Volcanism in the Central Part of the Lesser Caucasus

The role of the process of fractional crystallization in the formation of Neogene volcanism in the central part of the Lesser Caucasus is discussed in the article. It was found that in the formation of rocks of the andesite-dasite-rhyolite association found in the central part of the Lesser Caucasus, the role of rock-forming minerals in intermediate foci - plagioclase, clinopyroxene, amphibole, olso titanium magnetite, apatite is quite large. Based on computer modeling, it was determined that the calcium-alkali trend of the andesite-dasite-riolit series is controlled not only by the fractionation of magnetite, but also by the crystallization of hornblende with a high Fe/Mg ratio and unsaturated with SiO2. Hornblen's early crystallization is a key factor in the formation of the calc-alkaline series during the evolution of Neogene magmatism. Keywords: Central part of the; Lesser Caucasus; Neogene volcanism; Fractional crystallization; Hornblende crystallization.

First pollen record from the Late Holocene forest environment in the Lesser Caucasus

Pollen-based vegetation change has been inferred from sediments in Kalavan Red Lake. This small lake is placed in the beech-oak-hornbeam forest, about three kilometres away from the village of Kalavan (Gegharkunik Province of the Republic of Armenia) which is rich with archaeological sites spread in the Barepat River valley spanning from the Palaeolithic period onwards. It has the potential to document the Holocene forest history and climate and human impacts on the Lesser Caucasus. However, this lake happens to be formed by a large landslide.Pollen and XRF analysis are provided over the last 3800 years. The basal age of the Kalavan sediment approximates the landslide age. This created a not vegetated slope including the lake catchment. Erosion and sedimentation processes brought coarse and heavy minerogenic elements, declining with the catchment revegetation by tall-grassland. This shift in the sedimentation continues, suggesting less erosion in the catchment when an admixture of Quercus and grasslands settled. Starting from 2000 cal. BP, arboreal pollen increases successively thanks to the step afforestation of Quercus, Carpinus orientalis and Fagus.The comparison with available pollen reconstruction illustrates the uniqueness of the vegetation dynamic recorded at Kalavan. However, the duration of this succession is also questionable. An intermediate hypothesis is proposed: the Kalavan's dynamic is first initiated by the landslide with the tall-grass development, then paced by the regional vegetation dynamic.Linking vegetation history and erosion with regional climate and archaeological data helps to evidence short-term climate change and human impact. Antique arid phase (2000–1600 cal. BP), the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age affect the vegetation, while demography variations during the Medieval period and Modern Age are shown by habitation and pastoral activity.

Heavy Metal Atmospheric Deposition Study in Azerbaijan Based on Moss Technique and Neutron Activation Analysis

Abstract The results of this investigation show that Azerbaijan industries and agricultural sector provide considerable anthropogenic impact on the environment of Caucasus. The use of moss biomonitoring technique and neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a first attempt to study heavy metal atmospheric deposition in Azerbaijan, a country different relief and climate. The study was undertaken in the summer of 2015 of atmospheric deposition of man-made heavy metal pollutants in the area of mining and processing plant in Gadabay and Dashkasan mininig district. At the same time samples were collected from the Goygol State Reserve in the Lesser Caucasus not far from the city of Ganja. A total 85 moss samples (predominantly Pleurozium schreberi) collected in both environmentally contrast area. Elemental determination was carried out by epithermal neutron activation analysis (ENAA) at the reactor IBR-2 of Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (FLNP JINR). For the first time 44 elemental concentrations were determined (Na, Mg, Al, Si, Cl, K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Br, Rb, Sr, Mo, Ag, Cd, In, Sb, I, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Tb, Tm, Yb, Hf, Ta, W, Au, Th, U). Multivariate statistical analysis of the analytical results obtained will make it possible to identify the main sources of pollution and to assess the role of long-range transport of pollutants.

Влияние изменения климата на растительность Апшеронского полуострова

Climate change is one of the global problems of modern times, and the increase in the average annual temperature in our country over the past 100 years to 0.4–1.3 °C has affected the structure and function of cultural ecosystems in the Absheron Peninsula. In order to study the impact of climate change on the peninsula, dendrochronological and dendroclimatological studies were conducted, forest assessments were analyzed. The study found that the increase in carbon dioxide in forests due to climate change in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus has affected the growth dynamics, phenology, growth, root system and productivity of plants. The increase in CO2 in the Greater Caucasus is due to the endemic, rare, endangered tree plants of Azerbaijan Quercus castaneifolia C. A. Mey., Parrotia persica (DC.) C. A. Mey., Carpinus betulus L., Pinus eldarica Medw., and others. manifests itself more in species. As a result of warming observed in forests in the northern regions of the Greater Caucasus, an increase in the annual ring remnants of young trees was observed in 2010–2020 compared to 1850. Rapid growth of plants was observed in the early stages of plant growth in areas where the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere increased. At the same time, it should be noted that the excessive increase in CO2 in forests caused drought stress in July and August. Although climate change has affected the physiology and growth of trees in the study, increasing ozone in the area balances it by resisting the positive effects of CO2.

Revision of the trace fossil Megagrapton Książkiewicz, 1968 with focus on Megagrapton aequale Seilacher, 1977 from the lower Eocene of the Lesser Caucasus in Georgia

Megagrapton Książkiewicz, 1968 is a characteristic deep-sea trace fossil belonging to the group of graphoglyptids and mostly preserved as a network of irregular meshes in hypichnial semirelief. So far, eleven ichnospecies have been distinguished under this ichnogenus, though commonly on weak evidence. The so-far poorly known ichnospecies Megagrapton aequale Seilacher, 1977 is described here on the basis of the numerous, newly discovered specimens from deep-sea siliciclastic deposits of the Bolevani Subsuite (lower Eocene) in the Lesser Caucasus of Georgia, together with other collections and published examples. A neotype of this ichnospecies is designated and the diagnosis emended. M. aequale occurs in lower Cambrian to upper Miocene deep-sea turbiditic deposits, mostly in the Paleogene. It is characterized by relatively small, variable meshes, which have mostly irregular sub-pentagonal, sub-hexagonal or sub-heptagonal shapes that are variable in size and are bordered by curved or straight semicircular ridges. It has been mistaken for Paleodictyon, which forms regular hexagonal nets. Paleodictyon imperfectum Seilacher, 1977 is included in M. aequale as the ichnosubspecies M. a. imperfectum, which is characterized by relatively thin bordering ridges. After critical analysis of all ichnospecies, only M. irregulare Książkiewicz, 1968, M. submontanum (Azpeitia Moros, 1933), and M. aequale are recommended for further use. These are distinguished on the basis of the prevailing morphology of the meshes, irrespective of large differences in morphometric parameters within the ichnospecies. Irredictyon chaos Vialov, 1972 is included in M. irregulare as the ichnosubspecies M. i. chaos, which is characterized by relatively thick bordering ridges. Megagrapton is interpreted as a cast of a subsurface open burrow network with a few connections to the sea floor. The burrows probably functioned as a trap for small organisms (ethological subcategory irretichnia).

A new millipede genus and species of the tribe Pachyiulini from the Caucasus (Diplopoda, Julida, Julidae).

A new genus and species of the millipede tribe Pachyiulini, Bellatoiulusgolovatchigen. et sp. nov., is described from the Lesser Caucasus, Azerbaijan. Cybertypes of the new species are created from the physical holotype male and from a paratype female. The distribution and ecological features of the new species, and the position of the new genus within Pachyiulini are discussed.

Quaternary Collision-Zone Magmatism of the Greater Caucasus

Abstract The Greater Caucasus mountains (Cavcasioni) mark the northern margin of the Arabia–Eurasia collision zone. Magmatism in the central part of the Greater Caucasus began in the Pleistocene, up to ~25 Myr after initial collision. This paper presents bulk-rock and Sr–Nd–Pb isotope geochemistry from 39 Quaternary volcanic rock samples (<450 Ka) recovered from the Mt. Kazbek (Kasbegui) region of the Greater Caucasus, Georgia, to assess the sources and magmatic evolution of these lavas and the possible triggers for melting in the context of their regional tectonics. Compositions are dominantly calc-alkaline basaltic andesite to dacite (57–67 wt % SiO2). Although the lavas were erupted through thick continental crust, there is little evidence for extensive modification by crustal contamination. Trace element and isotopic systematics indicate that the lavas have supra-subduction zone signatures, most likely reflecting derivation from a lithospheric source that had been modified by melts and/or fluids from material subducted before and during the collisional event. Mass-balance modelling of the Sr–Nd isotope data indicates that the lavas require significant input from a subducted slab, with deep-sourced fluids fluxing the slab into the source region. In contrast with published data from Lesser Caucasus magmatism, data from the Mt. Kazbek region suggest that a compositionally distinct sediment source resides beneath the Greater Caucasus, producing characteristic trace element and Pb isotopic signatures. Two distinct compositional groups and therefore primary liquids can be discerned from the various volcanic centres, both derived from light rare-earth element enriched sources, but with distinct differences in Th/Yb and Dy/Yb ratios and Pb isotopes. Rare-earth element modelling of the lava sources is consistent with 3–4% melting starting in the garnet peridotite and continuing into the spinel facies or, potentially, sited in the garnet-spinel transition zone. Small-scale convection related to mantle upwelling provides a plausible mechanism for Greater Caucasus magmatism and explains the random aspect to the distribution of magmatism across the Arabia–Eurasia collision zone.

Patterns of distribution and peculiarities of formation of gold ore mineralization in metamorphic and black shale strata of Azerbaijan


 
 
 
 The article discusses the patterns of distribution and the peculiarities of the formation of gold mineralization in the metamorphic and black shale strata of Azerbaijan in order to determine metallogenic specialization. Mineragenic analysis of gold-bearing territories was carried out using numerous data of quantitative studies of the substance of the studied objects: ore-bearing sedimentary and metamorphic strata, ore bodies and processes ore genesis. The spatio-temporal relationships of gold-bearing mineralization of various material-morphological types, conditioned by lithological-geochemical conditions and time of manifestation of lithogenetic processes and metamorphism, have been determined. In the petrographic description of the studied rocks, two groups were distinguished: Early Paleozoic crystalline shales and Upper Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. It has been determined that the shales were initially enriched with gold during sedimentogenesis. In subsequent processes of metamorphism, part of the gold was removed from the shale and redeposited, and thus spread unevenly. Favourable zones of ore deposition could lead to the concentration of gold in shales in industrial conditions. In the studied crystalline shales, attention is drawn to the contents of Pt and Pd, the commonest elements of the platinum group. The Pt content in shales is 0.08 g / T on average, while the clarke for clayey shales is 0.03 g / t, i. e. almost three times higher than the clarke. Even more contrasting is the content of the platinum group element, palladium. In shales, the Pd content is 0.046 g / t. These data, together with the high gold content in the shales, can be considered as a typomorphic geochemical feature of the crystalline shales of the Asrikçay massif of the pre-Jurassic basement of the Lesser Caucasus. The studies have shown that during the formation of gold mineralization in metamorphic and black shale strata, an important role was played by the features of the host carbonaceous sedimentary complexes, which served as additional sources of noble and associated metals. Some of the ore elements in unaltered sediments have their own mineral forms.
 
 
 

The Project ArAGATS Kasakh Valley Archaeological Survey, Armenia: Report of the 2014–2017 Seasons

During four field seasons spanning 2014 through 2017, Project ArAGATS (Archaeology and Geography of Ancient Transcaucasian Societies) expanded our long-term research on the origins and development of complex political systems in the South Caucasus with a comprehensive study of the upper Kasakh River valley in north-central Armenia. The Kasakh Valley Archaeological Survey employed both systematic transect survey of 43 km2 and extensive satellite- and drone-based reconnaissance to accommodate the complex topography of the Lesser Caucasus and the impacts of Soviet-era land amelioration. Though our survey was animated by questions related to the chronology and distribution of Bronze and Iron Age fortifications and cemeteries, we also recorded Paleolithic sites stretching back to the earliest human settlement of the Caucasus, Early Bronze Age surface finds, and historic landscape modifications. Concurrent to the survey, members of the ArAGATS team carried out test excavations at select settlement sites and associated burials, and a series of wetland core extractions, with the goals of affirming site occupation sequences and setting them within their environmental context. This report provides an overview of the results of these multidisciplinary activities.1

Влияние селей на территориальную организацию хозяйств в населенных пунктах бассейнов горных рек (на примере междуречья Дзегамчай -Гянджачай в азербайджанской части Малого Кавказа)

The article analyzes the scientific and methodological foundations for studying the mudflow hazard in the country between Dzegamchay rivers in the Azerbaijan part of the Lesser Caucasus. With the use of modern GIS technologies, analysis of statistical materials, mapping, field research and other methods, the threat of destruction of residential areas has been identified. In addition, based on the principle of basin analysis, using the method of comparative analysis of statistical facts, the influence of mudflows on the territorial organization of economy is studied, on the basis of which economic and geographical conditions are analyzed in detail and the mudflow threat is assessed.

The importance of Sanatorium-resort complexes for medical treatments in Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan is a country rich in its subsoil and surface natural resources. There is a colorful hydrographic network in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, and Kur lowland that separate them. Our republic with a very fascinating landscape is more beautiful in a river, lake, waterfall, spring and others. The Caspian Sea, high mountains and green forests are further beautifying the homeland. Among such beauties, sanatorium-resort complexes are more attractive. Thermal waters with temperatures of 72 C are used for treatment purposes in the territory of Shikhov, Baku city. These waters play a big role in the treatment of spinal, skin-venereal, wind and other diseases. Everyone may use thermal waters in Goran, Samukh, Gazanbulag, Tartar, Barda, Aghjabadi, Khachmaz, Lankaran, Astara, Masallı and other places for treatment purposes. Other territories of our republic also have sanatorium-resort complexes. So, waters used in Galaalti are being for treatment of kidney stones. There is a very important resort complex in the bosom of nature. In general, Azerbaijan is a country distinguished with its beautiful resort zones. Sanatorium hospitals which operate in these zones are well-known for treatment of cardiac, cardiovascular, nervous system, gastrointestinal, chronic and other diseases. In this regard, we welcome everyone from different countries of the world to the sanatorium-resort hospitals of our republic.

Geology and palaeoenvironment of Karin Tak Cave (lesser caucasus)

Karin Tak cave is located in the south-eastern end of the Lesser Caucasus (NE of the Armenian Highland). Development of the cave was related to the dissolution of Middle-Upper Jurassic limestone by meteoric water recharge controlled by pre-existing faults and fissures beginning in the Neogene. Geophysical studies of the cave, including by ground penetrating radar, have been conducted, and a map of the pit’s walls constructed showing the extent of the roof collapse breccia and of sediment deposits on the cave floor. The collapse material consists of chaotic limestone breccia and blocks. Careful analysis of cave floor sediments allowed the Late Pleistocene palaeoenvironment in the vicinity of the cave to be reconstructed. Analyses included integrated sedimentological studies (stratigraphy, grain size analysis) together with geochemical (X-ray fluorescence) and palynological observations. Pollen studies indicate the dominance of conifers (>60 % Tsuga sp., Pinus sp.) together with Fraxinus sp. (fam. Oleaceae) and Quercus sp. (fam. Fagaceae), which indicate a cold temperate continental climate in the Late Pleistocene. Non-dramatic climate change occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in the cave area, with conditions favorable for hominin activity.

Современная сравнительная характеристика горно-луговых почв Азербайджана

The northeastern slope of the Lesser Caucasus occupies a large territory in the western part of Azerbaijan. One of the most widespread soils in Azerbaijan is mountain meadow soils. The purpose of the research is a comprehensive and comparative study of morphodiagnostic parameters, physicochemical properties and biochemical activity of natural and anthropogenically modified biogeocenosis of mountain meadow soils of the Gadabay District. Some results of many years study are described in the article. Villages like Gara Murad, Kichik, Garamurad, Saratovka and others were researched. The research was carried out on virgin soils and cultivated lands in villages. A total of 15 land plots have been allocated, some of the research results are presented in the article. Carrying out numerous agro-reclamation activities, we managed to attract uncultivated land to agriculture and obtain high-quality products. The groundwater level in these areas exceeds 2 meters, and the salinization processes are active. Comparative results from all these agro-chemical studies helped to get virgin soils into agriculture in the plains and achieve high productivity. This can be invaluable literary material for a new generation of soil scientists.

Биоразнообразие лесных экосистем Баситчайского государственного природного заповедника

The study analyzed the natural plant species of the Basitchay State Nature Reserve, located in the south of the Lesser Caucasus (Zangelan District), the population status of plants in the areas, the taxonomic composition of trees, shrubs and grasses. To this end, the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Institute of Dendrology of Azerbaijan NAS got acquainted with the current situation in the district. During the monitoring, satellite images, GPS coordinates, etc. were used. Soil samples brought from the site were examined for 14 indicators of the mineral composition using Palintest equipment, soil sets 400. Quercus iberica grows in the forest cover of the mountainous part of the region and Carpinus caucasica, 2 types of junipers: Juniperus foetidissima, J. depressa Stev. and hybrid, there are Pistacia mutica, sorbus, mulberry, willow, poplar, hawthorn, foxglove, mountain xerophilous plants, shrubs, blackthorn, etc. Q. araxina, Celtis caucasica Willd., Carpinus orentalis, Pistacia mutica, Acer iberica grow on dry stony slopes, Ulmus araxina Takht. = U. minor Mill. Pyrus salicifolia forms woodlands with juniper. Such forests are characterized by xerophytic shrubs: Atraphaxis spinosa, Lonicera iberica, Cerasus microcarpa, Ephedra intermedia Schrenk. et. Camei, Rhamnus pallasii and Paliurus spina-christi. As a result, 27 species of trees, 18 shrubs and 11 species of herbs have been registered in the Basitchai State Nature Reserve. Of these species, 17 rare, endangered trees, 3 shrubs, 3 grass species, 6 trees and 2 shrubs of relict and endemic species have been identified.

Биологическая характеристика различных трав, распространенных на орошаемых территориях северной части Малого Кавказа

Except for grain herbs, legumes, and sedge, all herbaceous plants are included in the agrobotanical group, called various herbs. Different herbs are found in forested meadows and humid places. Generally, different herbs are found in each of the natural climatic regions. As a result of the research, 13 species, 12 genera, 9 families from various herbs are spread in the irrigated areas of the northern part of the Lesser Caucasus. A comparative analysis of the variety of herbs distributed in the area, the quality of feed, and the agrobotanical groups was conducted.

Aramazdospirifer orbelianus (Abich, 1858) n. comb., a new cyrtospiriferid brachiopod genus and a biostratigraphically important species from the lower Famennian (Upper Devonian) of Armenia

The new genus Aramazdospirifer n. gen. (Cyrtospiriferidae) is erected to include Spirifer orbelianus Abich, 1858 from the lower Famennian of Central Armenia as its type species and to refute long-standing claims related to the affinities of the latter. The micro-ornament and internal structure of this species are investigated and documented for the first time, on the basis of recently collected material from the Ertych horizon of three different sections. Additionally, a neotype is selected for Abich’s species as the type material is lost. Aramazdospirifer orbelianus (Abich, 1858) n. comb. is a biostratigraphically important species for the lower Famennian strata of the Lesser Caucasus. It appears to be restricted to the South-Armenian Block; reports outside this Gondwanan area are discussed and discarded.

Petrologic and Geochemical Differences between the Late Cenozoic Ignimbrites in the Greater and the Lesser Caucasus Resulting from the Geodynamic Evolution of These Structures

Petrologic and Geochemical Differences between the Late Cenozoic Ignimbrites in the Greater and the Lesser Caucasus Resulting from the Geodynamic Evolution of These Structures

Антропогенная трансформация некоторых свойств и состава гажевых серо-коричневых почв Гянджа-Казахской равнины

Gay gray-brown soils are distributed mainly in the foothills of the Lesser Caucasus, on the Ganja-Gazakh plain and in the lower reaches of the Araz basin. They are formed by changing volcanic rocks in hot and dry climates. In the process of erosion and soil formation, pyrite, alunitized and other sulfur-containing rocks turn into gazh, on which gray-brown gazh soils are formed. As a result of human activity, i. e. deep plowing and irrigation, these lands are being converted. It turned out that the transformation of these soils is clearly felt in the thickness of the humus layer, its distribution along the profile, quantity and composition. The thickness of the humus layer increases from 40–45 cm to 100 cm. As a result of the transformation, the length of the humus profile is constantly decreasing. Changes in the composition of humus led to an increase in the content of humic acids. Although the coefficient in the uncultivated area decreased from 1.36 to 0.80, in the irrigated area it changed from 1.70 to 0.93.

Genetic variation and cytological diversity in the Urar Brush-tailed Mouse, Calomyscus urartensis Vorontsov & Kartavseva, 1979 (Mammalia: Rodentia) in Lesser Caucasia

The Urar Brush-tailed Mouse, Calomyscus urartensis Vorontsov & Kartavseva, 1979, is distributed in the Lesser Caucasus and is reported only from the type locality in Nakhjivan, Azerbaijan, and two localities in Azerbaijan provinces, Iran. To evaluate genetic structure and karyologic variation a combination of molecular (cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene sequences) and cytological approaches were used. Karyologic data highlighted the existence of a population from Khoy, north-western Iran, with differentiated chromosome components 2n=34 and FNa=42. This new population with a distinct Cytb haplotype showed a 2.2% genetic distance from the population from Kordasht, Iran, that located 150 kilometres away from Khoy. Considering time divergence estimation, we propose that vicariance might explain the divergences within C. urartensis that have accumulated by range restriction of populations as a result of Quaternary climate oscillations and glacial refugia.