Legal Treaties Research Articles

Law and Governance as Checks and Balances in Transatlantic Security: Rights, Redress, and Remedies in EU-US Passenger Name Records and the Terrorist Finance Tracking Program

Contemporary Transatlantic Relations have flourished since their formalization in 1995 in the New Transatlantic Agenda (NTA).1 Although not itself a binding legal Treaty, it prioritized ‘transatlantic security’ as one of its objectives.2 The ‘September 11’ 2001 (9/11) terrorist attacks in the US provided a major impetus for the EU and US to engage in transatlantic security cooperation. It resulted in much legal output, specifically a wave of transatlantic Agreements in the area of Justice and Home Affairs (JHA).3 Amongst these Agreements, two in particular were enacted so as to firstly, communicate air passenger data to the US and secondly, to legalize the exchange of personal data for the purpose of terrorist finance tracking: the EU-US Passenger Name Records (EU-US PNR) Agreements and EU-US Terrorist Financial Tracking Programme (EU-US TFTP) Agreements respectively. Over a decade after 9/11, transatlantic security cooperation is still planned in new areas, for example,...

Editorial Policy and Style Information

Editorial Policy and Style Information

The right to strike in the EU: the complexity of the norms and safeguarding efficacy, (Rome, 2011, Ediesse) by Carmen La Macchia (review)

REVIEWS□ Publication round-up Forthisedition IURprovides brief overviews ofthree books,each of whichconcerns issues atthe forefront ofICTUR's work around international labour law,labour standards, and the protection oflabour rights innational lawand practice Reviews by Daniel Blackburn, Editor, IUR FromILO Standards to EU Law: The Case of EqualitybetweenMenand WomenatWork, byEve C. LandauandYves Beigbeder (Leiden, 2008,Mārtiņus Nijhoff). 340pages,ISBN978 90 04 157187 This book takesan under-utilised approachof examininghow legal concepts have evolved throughdifferent international organisations, including the UnitedNations,the International LabourOrganisation, theCouncilofEurope,and theEuropeanUnion.A seriesofoverview chaptersbeginwitha focuson each of theinternationalorganisations and thenexamineninethematic areas.Thesearefollowed byan assessment ofchallenges and trends forthefuture. Each of thethematic sections takea singleissue,suchas equal treatment, pregnancy and parentalleave, and affirmative action, and investigates thetreatmentofthatissuebyeach institution and itsvarious legal treaties and jurisprudential bodies. In several sections thenature oftheEUlegalprocess means thatissues are also traceddown into nationallegal principlesamong EU Member States. Conclusions ineach sectionillustrate how theauthors findthattheinstitutions have influenced one another, forexample:"...Convention No. 3 of 1919, adopted at the firstGeneral Conference ofthenew organisation, has defined thebasic principles oftheprotection developed bytheEU initsDirectives'. Theapproachis reallycompelling forthestudent ofinternational law whoseekstoknowmoreabouttheinter-relationshipsbetweentheinternational organisations. A realflawis thatthescale ofthework- tackling so manydifferent thematic areas- leavesverylittleroomineachchapter conclusion for theanalysisoftheinter -relationships tobe mappedout.In consequencesomeofthechapter conclusions are (as in thesectionquotedhere)lackingin depth anddetailon theintriguing question as tohowin practice thisinfluence operated. The ChallengeofChildLabourin International Law byFranziska Humbert (Cambridge, 2009, Cambridge University Press). 436 pages,ISBN:978 0 521764902 Franziska Humbert has conducted a usefulexercise in drawing together international legalstandardson childlabourand in attaching theseto morestrategic quasi-judicial and political efforts thatareunderway to achieveILO and UN goals. Chapter 2 providesa usefulsummary round-up ofthemajorinternational legal sourceson protection of childlabourprinciples, and Humbert coversnot onlyILO Conventions and the UN Covenants, butalso aspectsofILO and UNcomplaintsmechanisms and thepoliciesand initiativesofthetwoorganisations . The Chapter also givesattention to how theissueis dealtwithby customary law, as ius cogens , and as a general principle oflaw,notably an examination on how forcedlabourissuesweredealtwithbytheILO aroundMyanmar / Burma.In some ways the heartof the book is Chapter4 thatexamines trademeasuresforenforcement of childlabour principles. HereHumbert examines a widerange ofinitiatives before offering conclusions arounda possible ILO-WTO enforcement mechanism. Humbert is hereresurrecting discussionaround theglobalILO-WTOsocialclauseand itmaybe that inthewakeofrecent bi-lateral initiatives that we are overdueforsucha discussion. Foranybodyseekingan up to dateguideto keyissues and legal sourcesthisis an excellentguide.A reservation, however,is thatthe book failsto examinethe positionadoptedby a numberof southern activists, particularly from India,around thetimeof the 1999WorldTradeOrganisation talkson theproposedSocial Clause.Then significant voicesfrom theIndiantrade unionmovementinparticular expressedstrong dissent from what was otherwisea strongconsensusfrom organisedlabour,as represented by the then ICFTU.Itwouldbe unfortunate ifthissignificant and strongly voiceddissent, whichmanyat the timetried tobrushaside,weretobe forgotten. The right to strike in theEU: thecomplexity ofthenormsand safeguarding efficacy, byCarmen La Macchia(Rome,2011,Ediesse) 253pages,ISBN:97888 230 I663 7 (also availableinItalian) Thisbookcollates a seriesofshort overview articles on the right to strike in Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Poland,Romania, Spain,Sweden, andtheUK.Thebookopenswith an overview of howthequestion oftheright tostrike istreated in EUlaw(or,rather, howitisnottreated byEUlaw - '...thestrike is a matter excludedfrom EU competence ...')beforemovingon to moredetailed assessmenton a country-by-country bases of reports compiledby nationallegal experts. The question oftheEU'slackofcompetence tolegislate on theright to strike rather dominated the preparatory conferences fromwhichthisbook emerged, butthequestion didnotpermeate more fully intothestructure ofthebook. Europehad justrecently beenshakenbya seriesofdecisions from theEU'sCourt ofJustice that hadhada significant impact ontheexercise oftheright tostrike inseveral European jurisdictions andatthecrossborderlevel ,and yetwe have herea seriesof reports that continue totreat thequestion ofstrike regulations as a matter exclusively fordeterminationbythemember States. Thebook is matched bya seriesofmoredetailed reports from eachof thenational experts, againon a country-by-country basis.Thesemoredetailed reports willshortly be availableon theCGILwebsite. INTERNATIONAL union rights Page 28Volume 19Issue 1201 2 ...

Publication round-up

REVIEWS□ Publication round-up Forthisedition IURprovides brief overviews ofthree books,each of whichconcerns issues atthe forefront ofICTUR's work around international labour law,labour standards, and the protection oflabour rights innational lawand practice Reviews by Daniel Blackburn, Editor, IUR FromILO Standards to EU Law: The Case of EqualitybetweenMenand WomenatWork, byEve C. LandauandYves Beigbeder (Leiden, 2008,Mārtiņus Nijhoff). 340pages,ISBN978 90 04 157187 This book takesan under-utilised approachof examininghow legal concepts have evolved throughdifferent international organisations, including the UnitedNations,the International LabourOrganisation, theCouncilofEurope,and theEuropeanUnion.A seriesofoverview chaptersbeginwitha focuson each of theinternationalorganisations and thenexamineninethematic areas.Thesearefollowed byan assessment ofchallenges and trends forthefuture. Each of thethematic sections takea singleissue,suchas equal treatment, pregnancy and parentalleave, and affirmative action, and investigates thetreatmentofthatissuebyeach institution and itsvarious legal treaties and jurisprudential bodies. In several sections thenature oftheEUlegalprocess means thatissues are also traceddown into nationallegal principlesamong EU Member States. Conclusions ineach sectionillustrate how theauthors findthattheinstitutions have influenced one another, forexample:"...Convention No. 3 of 1919, adopted at the firstGeneral Conference ofthenew organisation, has defined thebasic principles oftheprotection developed bytheEU initsDirectives'. Theapproachis reallycompelling forthestudent ofinternational law whoseekstoknowmoreabouttheinter-relationshipsbetweentheinternational organisations. A realflawis thatthescale ofthework- tackling so manydifferent thematic areas- leavesverylittleroomineachchapter conclusion for theanalysisoftheinter -relationships tobe mappedout.In consequencesomeofthechapter conclusions are (as in thesectionquotedhere)lackingin depth anddetailon theintriguing question as tohowin practice thisinfluence operated. The ChallengeofChildLabourin International Law byFranziska Humbert (Cambridge, 2009, Cambridge University Press). 436 pages,ISBN:978 0 521764902 Franziska Humbert has conducted a usefulexercise in drawing together international legalstandardson childlabourand in attaching theseto morestrategic quasi-judicial and political efforts thatareunderway to achieveILO and UN goals. Chapter 2 providesa usefulsummary round-up ofthemajorinternational legal sourceson protection of childlabourprinciples, and Humbert coversnot onlyILO Conventions and the UN Covenants, butalso aspectsofILO and UNcomplaintsmechanisms and thepoliciesand initiativesofthetwoorganisations . The Chapter also givesattention to how theissueis dealtwithby customary law, as ius cogens , and as a general principle oflaw,notably an examination on how forcedlabourissuesweredealtwithbytheILO aroundMyanmar / Burma.In some ways the heartof the book is Chapter4 thatexamines trademeasuresforenforcement of childlabour principles. HereHumbert examines a widerange ofinitiatives before offering conclusions arounda possible ILO-WTO enforcement mechanism. Humbert is hereresurrecting discussionaround theglobalILO-WTOsocialclauseand itmaybe that inthewakeofrecent bi-lateral initiatives that we are overdueforsucha discussion. Foranybodyseekingan up to dateguideto keyissues and legal sourcesthisis an excellentguide.A reservation, however,is thatthe book failsto examinethe positionadoptedby a numberof southern activists, particularly from India,around thetimeof the 1999WorldTradeOrganisation talkson theproposedSocial Clause.Then significant voicesfrom theIndiantrade unionmovementinparticular expressedstrong dissent from what was otherwisea strongconsensusfrom organisedlabour,as represented by the then ICFTU.Itwouldbe unfortunate ifthissignificant and strongly voiceddissent, whichmanyat the timetried tobrushaside,weretobe forgotten. The right to strike in theEU: thecomplexity ofthenormsand safeguarding efficacy, byCarmen La Macchia(Rome,2011,Ediesse) 253pages,ISBN:97888 230 I663 7 (also availableinItalian) Thisbookcollates a seriesofshort overview articles on the right to strike in Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Poland,Romania, Spain,Sweden, andtheUK.Thebookopenswith an overview of howthequestion oftheright tostrike istreated in EUlaw(or,rather, howitisnottreated byEUlaw - '...thestrike is a matter excludedfrom EU competence ...')beforemovingon to moredetailed assessmenton a country-by-country bases of reports compiledby nationallegal experts. The question oftheEU'slackofcompetence tolegislate on theright to strike rather dominated the preparatory conferences fromwhichthisbook emerged, butthequestion didnotpermeate more fully intothestructure ofthebook. Europehad justrecently beenshakenbya seriesofdecisions from theEU'sCourt ofJustice that hadhada significant impact ontheexercise oftheright tostrike inseveral European jurisdictions andatthecrossborderlevel ,and yetwe have herea seriesof reports that continue totreat thequestion ofstrike regulations as a matter exclusively fordeterminationbythemember States. Thebook is matched bya seriesofmoredetailed reports from eachof thenational experts, againon a country-by-country basis.Thesemoredetailed reports willshortly be availableon theCGILwebsite. INTERNATIONAL union rights Page 28Volume 19Issue 1201 2 ...

The Challenge of Child Labour in International Law by Franziska Humbert (review)

REVIEWS□ Publication round-up Forthisedition IURprovides brief overviews ofthree books,each of whichconcerns issues atthe forefront ofICTUR's work around international labour law,labour standards, and the protection oflabour rights innational lawand practice Reviews by Daniel Blackburn, Editor, IUR FromILO Standards to EU Law: The Case of EqualitybetweenMenand WomenatWork, byEve C. LandauandYves Beigbeder (Leiden, 2008,Mārtiņus Nijhoff). 340pages,ISBN978 90 04 157187 This book takesan under-utilised approachof examininghow legal concepts have evolved throughdifferent international organisations, including the UnitedNations,the International LabourOrganisation, theCouncilofEurope,and theEuropeanUnion.A seriesofoverview chaptersbeginwitha focuson each of theinternationalorganisations and thenexamineninethematic areas.Thesearefollowed byan assessment ofchallenges and trends forthefuture. Each of thethematic sections takea singleissue,suchas equal treatment, pregnancy and parentalleave, and affirmative action, and investigates thetreatmentofthatissuebyeach institution and itsvarious legal treaties and jurisprudential bodies. In several sections thenature oftheEUlegalprocess means thatissues are also traceddown into nationallegal principlesamong EU Member States. Conclusions ineach sectionillustrate how theauthors findthattheinstitutions have influenced one another, forexample:"...Convention No. 3 of 1919, adopted at the firstGeneral Conference ofthenew organisation, has defined thebasic principles oftheprotection developed bytheEU initsDirectives'. Theapproachis reallycompelling forthestudent ofinternational law whoseekstoknowmoreabouttheinter-relationshipsbetweentheinternational organisations. A realflawis thatthescale ofthework- tackling so manydifferent thematic areas- leavesverylittleroomineachchapter conclusion for theanalysisoftheinter -relationships tobe mappedout.In consequencesomeofthechapter conclusions are (as in thesectionquotedhere)lackingin depth anddetailon theintriguing question as tohowin practice thisinfluence operated. The ChallengeofChildLabourin International Law byFranziska Humbert (Cambridge, 2009, Cambridge University Press). 436 pages,ISBN:978 0 521764902 Franziska Humbert has conducted a usefulexercise in drawing together international legalstandardson childlabourand in attaching theseto morestrategic quasi-judicial and political efforts thatareunderway to achieveILO and UN goals. Chapter 2 providesa usefulsummary round-up ofthemajorinternational legal sourceson protection of childlabourprinciples, and Humbert coversnot onlyILO Conventions and the UN Covenants, butalso aspectsofILO and UNcomplaintsmechanisms and thepoliciesand initiativesofthetwoorganisations . The Chapter also givesattention to how theissueis dealtwithby customary law, as ius cogens , and as a general principle oflaw,notably an examination on how forcedlabourissuesweredealtwithbytheILO aroundMyanmar / Burma.In some ways the heartof the book is Chapter4 thatexamines trademeasuresforenforcement of childlabour principles. HereHumbert examines a widerange ofinitiatives before offering conclusions arounda possible ILO-WTO enforcement mechanism. Humbert is hereresurrecting discussionaround theglobalILO-WTOsocialclauseand itmaybe that inthewakeofrecent bi-lateral initiatives that we are overdueforsucha discussion. Foranybodyseekingan up to dateguideto keyissues and legal sourcesthisis an excellentguide.A reservation, however,is thatthe book failsto examinethe positionadoptedby a numberof southern activists, particularly from India,around thetimeof the 1999WorldTradeOrganisation talkson theproposedSocial Clause.Then significant voicesfrom theIndiantrade unionmovementinparticular expressedstrong dissent from what was otherwisea strongconsensusfrom organisedlabour,as represented by the then ICFTU.Itwouldbe unfortunate ifthissignificant and strongly voiceddissent, whichmanyat the timetried tobrushaside,weretobe forgotten. The right to strike in theEU: thecomplexity ofthenormsand safeguarding efficacy, byCarmen La Macchia(Rome,2011,Ediesse) 253pages,ISBN:97888 230 I663 7 (also availableinItalian) Thisbookcollates a seriesofshort overview articles on the right to strike in Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Poland,Romania, Spain,Sweden, andtheUK.Thebookopenswith an overview of howthequestion oftheright tostrike istreated in EUlaw(or,rather, howitisnottreated byEUlaw - '...thestrike is a matter excludedfrom EU competence ...')beforemovingon to moredetailed assessmenton a country-by-country bases of reports compiledby nationallegal experts. The question oftheEU'slackofcompetence tolegislate on theright to strike rather dominated the preparatory conferences fromwhichthisbook emerged, butthequestion didnotpermeate more fully intothestructure ofthebook. Europehad justrecently beenshakenbya seriesofdecisions from theEU'sCourt ofJustice that hadhada significant impact ontheexercise oftheright tostrike inseveral European jurisdictions andatthecrossborderlevel ,and yetwe have herea seriesof reports that continue totreat thequestion ofstrike regulations as a matter exclusively fordeterminationbythemember States. Thebook is matched bya seriesofmoredetailed reports from eachof thenational experts, againon a country-by-country basis.Thesemoredetailed reports willshortly be availableon theCGILwebsite. INTERNATIONAL union rights Page 28Volume 19Issue 1201 2 ...

Mediating Risk through the International Health Regulations and Bio-Political Surveillance

The International Health Regulations (IHR) remain the primary international legal treaty specifically focused on infectious disease control. In the mid-1990s, international public health officials recognised the need to overhaul the IHR to make them more relevant to the modern world. In revising the IHR, the treaty vastly expanded the scope of reportable conditions, strengthened and widened reporting requirements, and sought explicitly to incorporate human rights considerations – all in the name of reducing transborder risks associated with infectious disease. In this article, I trace the development of the IHR as a tool for mitigating infectious disease risk and examine how well the revised version of the IHR responds to contemporary infectious disease concerns. In particular, I focus on how the IHR have expanded surveillance requirements while also recognising the need to respect international human rights.

Editorial Policy and Style Information

Editorial Policy and Style Information

Fair and effective multilateralism in the post-Copenhagen climate negotiations

Copenhagen failed to agree a new legal treaty, and fragmentation is now a possible scenario. What options exist for a fair and effective multilateralism that might bring about the next turning point? Possible changes are considered in the context of the ‘how, what, where and who’ of multilateral climate negotiations. Fair process is crucial to an acceptable outcome. In order to increase effectiveness, multilateralism may need to define contributions from smaller groups, on a representative basis. The functions of other fora must be to build common understanding, whereas decisions and agreements are negotiated under the UNFCCC and its instruments. Reorganization of work within the UNFCCC will need to enhance its catalytic role, including how it supports domestic action. A mix of processes is needed to speed up the pace of decision-making, combining well-established UN procedures with some innovative ideas including those from the theory and practice in other multilateral environmental agreements. A review in 2015 must increase ambition. We need to invest in the UNFCCC, which remains the only legitimate, fully inclusive forum. Only a legally binding agreement ensures that others also act (‘fair’) and a binding nature is the best assurance of implementation (‘effective’). Equity demands a fair and effective outcome.

AMPARO MORAL: UMA FORMA DE SOLUÇÃO PACIFICA DE CONTROVÉRSIAS

The aim of this article is to analyze the bilateral relationship between Argentina and Chile, focusing on the political, social and economical interests. The frontier conflicts have always been a place of mutual tensions, subject to legal treaties and international agreements.

Adding Insult to Injury: Questioning the Role of Dignity in Conceptions of Sovereignty

The term in the United States has more than one reference. Sometimes, refers to the literal and the legal power of the United States in its relationship to other nations and to the world community. We call this sovereignty and contrast it with a second use, which we describe as sovereignty to capture its focus on the relationships among state, federal, and tribal governments within the borders of the United States. The current majority of the United States Supreme Court has revived the language of internal - proffering it as the basis for invalidating or limiting the scope of federal legislation as applied to states. The Court's internal argument is supported in part by characterizing states as bearers of dignitary interests. Neither conceptions of nor of have been static over the centuries. While monarchs once held all and only nobility had democracies today celebrate the of their citizens and the of all persons. Today, equality of persons is central to concepts of popular and personal and human rights law embodies these premises. Further, during the last several decades, collectives of marginalized persons have also asserted rights to recognition and to self-determination of their political authority. The rise of both individual and collective claims of human has constrained sovereignty, for nations can no longer treat human beings with utter disregard by asserting as a defense. Given this nexus between and personhood, the United States Supreme Court's insistence on attributing to states is seen by some as either obnoxious or disingenuous. But the turn to in discussions ought neither to be dismissed nor embraced without puzzling about the work that it, circa 2003, is doing. In this article, we explore the role that the term dignity plays in United States constitutional law by learning when, where, and why the word has been used. That excavation in turn yields several normative insights. First, although concepts of can be identified in constitutional jurisprudence throughout the nation's history, the word was not used in reference to personal constitutional rights by the Supreme Court until the 1940s, in the wake of World War II. During that period, legal and political commentary around the world turned to the term to identify rights of personhood. Thus, talk in the law of the United States is an example of the influence of the norms of other nations, transnational experiences, and international legal treaties and documents on the law of the United States. Second, we argue that the Supreme Court's reinvigoration of doctrines of internal by endowing states with is driven in part by anxiety occasioned by the very permeability of our legal system. Third, both the influences on United States law by international norms and the efforts to ward them off make plain that, given global activity and technology, the law of the United States cannot be secured against external forces. Rather, this country's law is inevitably in conversation (directly or indirectly) with legal developments around the world. Fourth, we believe that as a legal matter, ought not to be reserved exclusively to individuals. Through an analysis of the caselaw of dignity, we have found many examples of the utility of institutional aimed at enabling a fledgling organization - be it a court or a nation - to function. For clarity, we speak of the accorded to nonhumans as role-dignity, by which we mean that is ascribed to an entity to enable it to produce something useful to persons or groups. In contrast, the of people need not be justified in reference to what other goods or effects it produces but rather as something intrinsic in personhood. Fifth, and finally, legal recognition of institutional ought to have a narrower ambit than does recognition of personal dignity. To endorse an entity's claim to role-dignity requires a contextual evaluation of the purposes for which the dignitary claim is made and an assessment of the power of the entity claiming this attribute. In our view, because of revised understandings of the import of human law ought not to rely on institutional role-dignity as a justification for immunizing states from accounting for their behavior. Indeed, being called to account ought not itself be seen as an affront to the role-dignity of an institution but ought, instead, to be understood as one mechanism of acknowledging that entity's power. However, as we detail, this approach does not preclude the use of role-dignity for states to generate other mechanisms to recognize their legitimate authority.

Recent and future activities of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs

This article discusses the development, and the current and future work, of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. The Office is active both as a source of information, education and training on space and as a secretariat to COPUOS and its Subcommittees; it also performs a role in the monitoring and implementation of various space-related legal treaties. Presently—and as part of the drive to use space to improve life on Earth—the bulk of its work is guided by the Vienna Declaration produced at UNISPACE III.

Integrated Coastal Management: The Role of Law and Lawyers

AbstractIntegrated coastal management (ICM) programmes are being planned, formulated and implemented in coastal States all over the world. To date, however, ICM has been seen as more in the realm of policy-makers, managers, scientists, coastal resource economists, and others, rather than in the realm of lawyers. This article reveals how law and lawyers should play an absolutely essential role at all stages of the ICM process. Ideally, ICM legal consultants will have a broad range of knowledge and experience in both international legal treaties as well as in certain fundamental national law principles, so that coastal zone policies will be designed and carried out with a critical understanding of the laws and institutions needed for the long-term success of an integrated coastal management programme.

Reflections on the Indian Enforcement of the GE/Renusagar Award

ON 7 OCTOBER 1993 the Indian Supreme Court issued the third, and most comprehensive, of its trilogy of judgments in Renusagar Power Co. Ltd. v. General Electric Co. , dismissing the appeal, affirming the decree of the Bombay High Court, and directing enforcement of the US dollar international award of an ICC tribunal in terms of the award.1 The arbitral tribunal in this case was headed by Sir Peter Thomas, QC, MP (now Lord Thomas of Gwydir), and included Professor Boris Bittker of Yale Law School, who joined in the award, and Dr R.K. Dixit, former Director, Legal Treaties Division, Ministry of External Affairs, dissenting. The award was rendered in Paris in September 1986. The Supreme Court judgment and the publication of the award and judgment warrant serious reflection on India's evolving judicial views on enforcement of international awards, especially in view of the fact that this wide-ranging judgment has been deemed by the Indian Bar as passing upon a matter of first impression for the Supreme Court. Indian Supreme Court judgments had previously been issued on various aspects of arbitral awards rendered outside of India in two noteworthy cases: ONGC v. The Western Company of North America 2 and National Thermal Power Corp. v. The Singer Corp. 3 Those decisions elicited vigorous criticism in Jan Paulsson's article, ‘The New York Convention's Misadventures in India’.4 But their scope was far different from that in Renusagar. ONGC and NTPC , unlike Renusagar , turned on the issue of whether the arbitral awards in uiose cases constituted ‘Convention’ awards or, for reasons not relevant here, were properly deemed to be domestic arbitration awards. The major issues5 dealt with in this case by the Supreme Court are: 1. In general, the extent to which Indian court review of fact-finding and interpretations …