Leading-edge Shear Layer Research Articles

Experimental Study on Vortex Shedding and Sound Radiation from a Rectangular Cylinder at Low Mach Numbers

Sound radiation from a rectangular cylinder, the cross-sectional aspect ratio (AR) of which varied from 0.3 to 4, was studied experimentally at Reynolds numbers of 7.5 × 103 to 1.4 × 105 and Mach numbers below 0.16. In addition to measurements of the lift-dipole sound, detailed flow fields around the rectangular cylinder were examined by means of PIV to better understand the dependence of sound radiation on the AR and Reynolds number as well as the vortex-cylinder interaction associated with sound generation. The mean square sound pressure was proportional to U6∞ St2, with almost the same factor of proportionality for aspect ratios larger than 0.5 in the Reynolds number range examined in spite of the fact that the spanwise correlation length and magnitude of the lift fluctuations were highly dependent on the AR. When vortex shedding at the trailing-edge was locked in phase with the leading-edge-generated vortices, which occurred for AR > 3, the shed vortices were quite two-dimensional, and correspondingly, the radiated sound exhibited a very sharp spectral peak like a line spectrum; the SPL was as strong as that for AR = 0.75, for which the maximum SPL was observed. Reynolds number effects on both SPL and the Strouhal number were weak except around the aspect ratio where reattachment of the separated leading-edge shear layer occurred.

The study of flow separation control by a nanosecond pulse discharge actuator

The basic dynamic characteristic of a nanosecond (NS) pulse discharge actuator in still air is investigated, which introduces viscid and inviscid effects to the flow, namely, heated air and pressure waves, respectively. The efficacy of a dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator driven by a nanosecond pulse for active flow separation control is investigated experimentally on a NASA SC(2)-0712 aerofoil at Re=0.5×106 (25m/s). The pressure distribution on the aerofoil surface is measured, and the result indicates that the separation is well controlled at a high angle of attack. The PIV test result shows that the forcing frequency selectively affects the flow over the aerofoil, and a higher forcing frequency has a better influence on the leading edge shear layer. Schlieren imaging experiments at Re=0.1×106 (5m/s) show that the main disturbance factor for the nanosecond pulse plasma actuator is the heating effect, which changes the local temperature and density and induces several vortex structures. The vortex structures entrain the outer high-momentum fluid into the shear layer, thereby strengthening the mixing of the shear layer with the main flow and delaying separation or even reattaching a separated flow. The research reveals the major disturbance factor introduced by NS discharge applied to flow separation control. Furthermore, the spatiotemporal disturbance process induced by the pulse discharge is investigated.

Vorticity transport and the leading-edge vortex of a plunging airfoil

The three-dimensional flow field was experimentally characterized for a nominally two-dimensional flat-plate airfoil plunging at large amplitude and reduced frequencies, using three-dimensional reconstructions of planar PIV data at a chord-based Reynolds number of 10,000. Time-resolved, instantaneous PIV measurements reveal that secondary vorticity, of opposite sign to the primary vortex, is intermittently entrained into the leading-edge vortex (LEV) throughout the downstroke, with the rate of entrainment increasing toward the end of the stroke when the leading-edge shear layer weakens. A planar vorticity transport analysis around the LEV indicated that, during the downstroke, the surface vorticity flux due to the pressure gradient is consistently about half that due to the leading-edge shear layer for all parameter values investigated, demonstrating that production and entrainment of secondary vorticity is an important mechanism regulating LEV strength. A small but non-negligible vorticity source was also attributed to spanwise flow toward the end of the downstroke. Aggregate vortex tilting is notably more significant for higher plunge frequencies, suggesting that the vortex core is more three-dimensional.

On the distribution of leading-edge vortex circulation in samara-like flight

As an abstraction of natural samara flight, steadily rotating plates in a free-stream flow have been studied. Particle image velocimetry on span-normal planes has been conducted to show that increasing rotation, as captured by the dimensionless parameter of tip speed ratio, causes a transition of the mean wake topology from that of a bluff body to that of a stable leading-edge vortex. Despite its notable effect on topology, a change in tip speed ratio has negligible effect on leading-edge circulation at a given spanwise position, local effective angle of attack and local effective velocity. The effective angle-of-attack distribution was held constant at different tip speed ratios by comparing rotating plates with different twist profiles. The shear-layer velocity profile at the leading edge was also resolved, allowing quantification of the vorticity flux passing through the leading-edge shear layer. Interestingly, the observed equilibrium values of circulation are not sensitive to changes in shear-layer vorticity flux.

A study of the energetic turbulence structures during stall delay

This study revealed the three-dimensional instantaneous topologies of the large-scale turbulence structures in the separated flow on the suction surface of wind turbine’s blade during stall delay. These structures are the major contributors to the first two POD (proper orthogonal decomposition) modes. The two kinds of instantaneous flow structures as major contributors to the first POD mode are: (1) extended regions of downwash flow with an upstream upward flow beside it and a compact vortex pair closer to the blade’s leading edge; (2) a large-scale clockwise vortex with strong induced flows. The two kinds of flow structures contributing significantly to the second POD mode are: (1) large counter-rotating vortices inducing strong upward velocities and a series of small vortices; (2) strong downwash flow coming from the leading-edge shear layer with a large and strong vortex on the left side and small vortices upstream. The statistical impacts of these large-scale and energetic structures on the turbulence have also been studied. It was observed that when these turbulence structures were removed from the flow, the peak values of some statistics were significantly reduced.

Determining the relative stability of leading-edge vortices on nominally two-dimensional flapping profiles

AbstractIt is hypothesized that the relative stability of leading-edge vortices (LEVs) on flapping profiles can be improved by moderating LEV growth through spanwise vorticity convection and vortex stretching. Moreover, it is hypothesized that the reduced frequency $k$ and profile sweep ${\it\Lambda}$ are critical in predicting relative LEV stability as determined by the aforementioned effects. These hypotheses are then confirmed experimentally with phase-averaged particle image velocimetry (PIV) and three-dimensional particle tracking velocimetry. In particular, more stable LEVs are observed at higher reduced frequencies, which is argued to represent the ratio between the limiting vortex size and the rate of vorticity feeding. The introduction of profile sweep increased both relative LEV stability and spanwise vorticity transport. It is thought that spanwise vorticity transport improved LEV stability by acting as a sink for vorticity generated in the leading-edge shear layer.

Investigation of vortex development on accelerating spanwise-flexible wings

The effect of spanwise flexibility on the development of leading-edge vortices for impulsively started flat plates at low Reynolds numbers has been investigated. A theoretical model is proposed, based on the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, coupled with a vortex growth model based on vorticity flux through a leading-edge shear layer. The model was validated for rigid and flexible flat plates undergoing a towing motion at an angle-of-attack of 45°. It is shown that a phase-delay in lift and drag generation occurs between rigid and flexible cases. The model indicates decreasing vorticity along the span as the wing is accelerated and begins to bend. Particle image velocimetry measurements conducted at three different spanwise planes showed a delay in vortex growth along the span, despite a uniform spanwise circulation. This uniform spanwise distribution of circulation is in contrast to the quasi-two-dimensional model, which predicted a reduced circulation near the profile tip where plate motion was delayed. It is therefore concluded that circulation must be dynamically redistributed through vorticity convection during the impulsive motion.

Vorticity transport in the leading-edge vortex on a rotating blade

AbstractVorticity transport is analysed within the leading-edge vortex generated on a rectangular flat plate of aspect ratio 4 undergoing a starting rotation motion in a quiescent fluid. Two analyses are conducted on the inboard half of the blade to better understand the vorticity transport mechanisms responsible for maintaining the quasi-equilibrium state of the leading-edge vortex. An initialglobalanalysis between the$25$and$50\, \%$spanwise positions suggests that, although spanwise velocity is significant, spanwise convection of vorticity is insufficient to balance the flux of vorticity from the leading-edge shear layer. Subsequent detailed analyses of vorticity transport in planar control volumes at the$25$and$50\, \%$spanwise positions verify this conclusion and demonstrate that vorticity annihilation due to interaction between the leading-edge vortex and the opposite-sign layer on the plate surface is an important, often dominant, mechanism for regulation of leading-edge-vortex circulation. Thus, it provides an important condition for maintenance of an attached leading-edge vortex on the inboard portion of the blade.

Unsteady fluid–structure interactions of a pitching membrane wing

Experiments were conducted on rectangular wings with an aspect ratio of two, at a chord Reynolds number Rec=46,000, in order to understand how membrane wings behave in a prescribed transient motion. As a reference, high-speed Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements were performed on stationary membrane wings in the range 0°<α<25°. Four distinct incidence regions were identified based on the mode shape, frequency and amplitude of the surface vibrations. Flow-field measurements indicated that the different regions were caused by the interactions of the leading-edge separated shear layer with the membrane. Then the membrane wing was subjected to transient sinusoidal pitching manoeuvres at starting incidences in each of these regions. The membrane deformation characteristics were seen to vary considerably with starting angle; both in terms of time-averaged and instantaneous quantities. In some cases there was significant time-lag in the response of the membrane. The PIV flow field measurements for this case showed signs of hysteresis between the pitch-up and pitch-down parts of the wing motion, which was not the case for a rigid wing with identical planform.

Mechanism of flow separation control using plasma actuation

The mechanism of flow separation control was investigated experimentally and computationally using pulse-modulated dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma actuation on a stalled flat plate airfoil at a Reynolds number of 3000. Load measurements were complimented with two-dimensional phase-averaged particle image velocimetry performed in the flowfield above the airfoil. A parametric study was carried out where the pulse-modulation frequency, duty cycle, and peak plasma body-force were varied. The two-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations, with no turbulence modeling, were solved directly using a commercial flow solver and a simple but satisfactory heuristic DBD plasma body-force model was incorporated. The overall experimental trends were well predicted by the computations, where the frequencies that produced the largest increases in lift coefficient excited bluff-body shedding at a frequency corresponding approximately to its unforced sub-harmonic. At non-dimensional frequencies most effective for increasing lift (∼0.2 to 0.5), the leading-edge shear layer was severed by the perturbations and then merged with a downstream vortex. In a time-mean sense this mechanism forced relatively high momentum fluid towards the surface with typically two re-circulating structures present on the airfoil. Although the essential flow control mechanism was captured by the computation, the idealized 2D approach was identified as a weakness due to the shedding instability not being present in the baseline experiments and the inability to account for three-dimensional structures in the shear layer.

On the coherent structures and stability properties of a leading-edge separated aerofoil with turbulent recirculation

AbstractThe present study is motivated by a need to produce stability modes to assist in the understanding and control of unsteady separated flows. The flow configuration is a NACA 0015 aerofoil with laminar leading-edge separation and turbulent recirculation. In previous water tunnel experiments, this flow configuration was measured in an unperturbed (uncontrolled) separated state, and a harmonically perturbed (controlled) reattached state. This study presents numerical data of the unperturbed case, and recovers stability modes to describe the evolution of perturbations in this environment. The unperturbed flow is numerically generated using large eddy simulation. Its temporal properties are quantified via a Fourier analysis of the velocity time history at selected points in space. The leading-edge shear layer instability is characterized by instantaneous vortex structures, and the bluff body shedding is illustrated by proper orthogonal decomposition modes. Statistical measures of the velocity field agree well with the water tunnel measurements. Finally a stability analysis is undertaken using a triple decomposition to distinguish between the time averaged field, the unsteady scales of motion, and a coherent wave (perturbation). This analysis identifies that perturbations in the region immediately downstream of the separated shear layer have the highest spatial growth rates. The associated frequency is of the order of the sub-harmonic of the shear layer instability.

Active Control of Flow Separation in a Radial Blower

An experimental investigation was undertaken as a proof-of-concept study for active separation control in a radial blower. Acoustic perturbations were introduced into the impeller housing of a small radial blower with fully stalled blades. Increases in the plenum pressure of 35% were achieved and, based on tuft-based flow visualization, it was concluded that the pressure increases were brought about due to excitation and deflection of the leading-edge separated shear layer. Within the parameter range considered here, the optimum dimensionless control frequencies were found to be O(0.5), irrespective of the blade orientation or number of blades. Moreover, the maximum pressure rise was achieved with an investment of only 2% of the fan input power. Backward bladed impeller blades exhibited slightly larger increases in pressure coefficients when compared with their forward bladed counterparts. The dependence of blower performance on reduced frequency was remarkably similar to that seen on flat plate airfoils at similar Reynolds numbers under periodic excitation.

Numerical analysis of the subsonic flow around a three-dimensional cavity

Flight vehicles such as wheel wells and bomb bays have many cavities. The flow around a cavity is characterized as an unsteady flow because of the formation and dissipation of vortices brought about by the interaction between the free stream shear layer and the internal flow of the cavity. The resonance phenomena can damage the structures around the cavity and negatively affect the aerodynamic performance and stability of the vehicle. In this study, a numerical analysis was performed for the cavity flows using the unsteady compressible three-dimensional Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation with Wilcox’s turbulence model. The Message Passing Interface (MPI) parallelized code was used for the calculations by PC-cluster. The cavity has aspect ratios (L/D) of 2.5 ∼ 7.5 with width ratios (W/D) of 2 ∼ 4. The Mach and Reynolds numbers are 0.4 ∼ 0.6 and 1.6×106, respectively. The occurrence of oscillation is observed in the “shear layer and transient mode” with a feedback mechanism. Based on the Sound Pressure Level (SPL) analysis of the pressure variation at the cavity trailing edge, the dominant frequencies are analyzed and compared with the results of Rossiter’s formula. The dominant frequencies are very similar to the result of Rossiter’s formula and other experimental data in the low aspect ratio cavity (L/D = ∼ 4.5). In the large aspect ratio cavity, however, there are other low dominant frequencies due to the leading edge shear layer with the dominant frequencies of the feedback mechanism. The characteristics of the acoustic wave propagation are analyzed using the Correlation of Pressure Distribution (CPD).

Sting-free measurements on a magnetically supported right circular cylinder aligned with the free stream

The flow over cylinders of varying fineness ratio (length to diameter) aligned with the free stream was examined using a magnetic suspension and balance system in order to avoid model support interference. The drag coefficient variation of a right circular cylinder was obtained for a wide range of fineness ratios. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to examine the flow field, particularly the behaviour of the leading-edge separation shear layer and its effect on the wake. Reynolds numbers based on the cylinder diameter ranged from 5×104to 1.1×105, while the major portion of the experiment was conducted atReD=1.0×105. For moderately large fineness ratio, the shear layer reattaches with subsequent growth of the boundary layer, whereas over shorter cylinders, the shear layer remains detached. Differences in the wake recirculation region and the immediate wake patterns are clarified in terms of both the mean velocity and turbulent flow fields, including longitudinal vortical structures in the cross-flow plane of the wake. The minimum drag corresponded to the fineness ratio for which the separated shear layer reattached at the trailing edge of the cylinder. The base pressure was obtained with a telemetry technique. Pressure fields and aerodynamic force fluctuations are also discussed.

Flow past rectangular cylinders: receptivity to transverse forcing

The flow at low Reynolds number around rectangular cylinders of varying chord-to-thickness ratios under transverse periodic forcing is studied numerically. Although of relatively low amplitude, the forcing locks the shedding from both the leading and trailing edges to the applied frequency. The base suction, and the lift and the drag on the cylinders are found to be complex functions of the forcing frequency. At low Reynolds numbers and without applied forcing, the flow is controlled by a global instability with the leading- and trailing-edge shedding locked; moreover, the reduced frequency of shedding varies in a stepwise manner with the chord-to-thickness ratio. This global instability is still evident in the flows under external forcing examined in this paper. While previous researchers have conjectured that the trailing-edge shedding plays a dominant role in the preferred frequency selection in the natural shedding case, the important role of trailing-edge shedding when the flow is forced is confirmed in the present study. In particular, the individual contributions from leading- and trailing-edge vortices on the perturbation to the leading-edge shear layer are examined. In addition, it is shown that the base suction is maximum when the forcing frequency is close to the global instability frequency observed in unforced flows, thereby strengthening the argument that the unforced, forced, and duct resonant cases are strongly influenced by the same global instability. The variations of the lift, drag and formation length with chord-to-thickness ratio are quantified.

Post-stall flow control on an airfoil by local unsteady forcing

By using a Reynolds-averaged two-dimensional computation of a turbulent flow over an airfoil at post-stall angles of attack, we show that the massively separated and disordered unsteady flow can be effectively controlled by periodic blowing–suction near the leading edge with low-level power input. This unsteady forcing can modulate the evolution of the separated shear layer to promote the formation of concentrated lifting vortices, which in turn interact with trailing-edge vortices in a favourable manner and thereby alter the global deep-stall flow field. In a certain range of post-stall angles of attack and forcing frequencies, the unforced random separated flow can become periodic or quasi-periodic, associated with a significant lift enhancement. This opens a promising possibility for flight beyond the static stall to a much higher angle of attack. The same local control also leads, in some situations, to a reduction of drag. On a part of the airfoil the pressure fluctuation is suppressed as well, which would be beneficial for high-α buffet control. The computations are in qualitative agreement with several recent post-stall flow control experiments. The physical mechanisms responsible for post-stall flow control, as observed from the numerical data, are explored in terms of nonlinear mode competition and resonance, as well as vortex dynamics. The leading-edge shear layer and vortex shedding from the trailing edge are two basic constituents of unsteady post-stall flow and its control. Since the former has a rich spectrum of response to various disturbances, in a quite wide range the natural frequency of both constituents can shift and lock-in to the forcing frequency or its harmonics. Thus, most of the separated flow becomes resonant, associated with much more organized flow patterns. During this nonlinear process the coalescence of small vortices from the disturbed leading-edge shear layer is enhanced, causing a stronger entrainment and hence a stronger lifting vortex. Meanwhile, the unfavourable trailing-edge vortex is pushed downstream. The wake pattern also has a corresponding change: the shed vortices of alternate signs tend to be aligned, forming a train of close vortex couples with stronger downwash, rather than a Kármán street.

Flow structure on stalled delta wing subjected to small amplitude pitching oscillations

The flow past a harmonically oscillating delta wing is investigated using high image-density particle image velocimetry. The overall objective is to alter the development of the leading-edge vortex and decrease the extent of stall on the wing. To this end, instantaneous velocity fields, contours of constant vorticity, and streamline patterns are obtained over an entire plane of the flow at successive instants of the wing motion. The degree of repeatability of the flow patterns during successive cycles of the wing oscillation is highly dependent on the dimensionless frequency of oscillation; it is possible to generate flow patterns that are phase locked at every cycle, as well as every other cycle, of the wing motion. In each case, a well-defined leading-edge vortex appears, and the instantaneous extent of the stall region is decreased relative to that on a stationary wing at the same angle of attack. However, cycle-averaged patterns show only minor departures from the flow structure on the stationary wing. Ensemble-averaged patterns, obtained by phase referencing to the wing motion, reveal that small-scale vortical structures originating in the unstable leading-edge shear layer are averaged out; the overall vorticity levels of the entire flowfield are lowered substantially, even for the average of only a small number of instantaneous images.