Lead-carbon Battery Research Articles

A novel three-dimensional hierarchical porous lead-carbon composite prepared from corn stover for high-performance lead-carbon batteries

In this work, a novel three-dimensional(3D) hierarchical porous lead-carbon composite (Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC) derived from corn stover biomass was prepared by chemical deposition coupled with pyrolysis to alleviate the problems associated with the high occurrence of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and irreversible sulfation of the negative electrode under a high-rate partial state of charge (HRPSoC). As an additive of negative electrode in lead-carbon battery. PbO, evenly distributed on the Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC composite, effectively inhibits the HER, acting as a nucleus for the active substance Pb, refining the grains of sponge Pb, and maintaining the high electrochemical active area of the electrode. The Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC composite with a high specific surface area and porosity possesses good ion channels, provides an ion reservoir, and effectively inhibits irreversible sulfation. As a result, the initial discharge capacity of the battery with Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC (164 mAh·g-1) is greater than that of the blank battery (109 mAh·g-1). The cycling life of the Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC battery (10120 cycles) is 9.4 times that of a blank battery (1073 cycles). Our work provides insights into how to regulate the specific surface area and porosity of lead-carbon additives and makes full use of biomass straw to provide new ideas for solving the environmental problems caused by straw incineration. It is the embodiment of the circular economy.

Preparation of NH4Cl-Modified Carbon Materials via High-Temperature Calcination and Their Application in the Negative Electrode of Lead-Carbon Batteries.

The performance of lead-acid batteries could be significantly increased by incorporating carbon materials into the negative electrodes. In this study, a modified carbon material developed via a simple high-temperature calcination method was employed as a negative electrode additive, and we have named it as follows: N-doped chitosan-derived carbon (NCC). The performance of this material was compared with a control battery containing activated carbon (AC). X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Raman spectroscopy were engaged in analyzing the crystal structure and morphology of the material. Afterwards, the electrochemical and battery performance was examined through cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear voltammetry (LSV) and constant current charge-discharge testing. Markedly, the electrode plate containing 1 wt.% NCC indicates the highest specific capacity (106.48 F g-1) as compared to the control battery, which is 1.56 times higher than the AC electrode plate and 4.75 times higher than the blank electrode plate. The linear voltammetry shows that the hydrogen precipitation current density of the 1 wt.% NCC electrode plate is only -0.028 A cm-2, a much higher value than that of the AC electrode plate. In addition, the simulated battery containing 1 wt.% NCC has a cycle life of 4324 cycles, which is 2.36 times longer than that of the same amount of additive AC battery (1834 cycles) and 5.34 times longer than that of the blank battery (809 cycles). In summary, NCC carbon has the advantage of extending the life of lead-acid batteries, rendering it a promising candidate for lead-acid battery additives.

Recent progress in the development of carbon‐based materials in lead–carbon batteries

AbstractLead‐acid batteries (LABs) are widely used as a power source in many applications due to their affordability, safety, and recyclability. However, as the demand for better electrochemical energy storage increases in various fields, there is a growing need for more advanced battery technologies. To meet this need, the application of LABs in hybrid electric vehicles and renewable energy storage has been explored, and the development of lead–carbon batteries (LCBs) has garnered significant attention as a promising solution. LCBs incorporate carbon materials in the negative electrode, successfully addressing the negative irreversible sulfation issue that plagues traditional LABs. Composite material additives and Pb–C composite electrodes have also gained popularity as effective ways to enhance negative electrode performance. This review article focuses on the role of carbon additives in the negative electrode of LCBs and discusses potential future additives that may be incorporated into the development of LCBs. Overall, this article provides insights into the potential of LCBs to offer more efficient and reliable energy storage.

Rapid Preparation of New Carbon Materials from Pure Six‐Carbon Alkane and Their Use as a Negative Electrode Additive for Lead‐Carbon Batteries

In this article, different carbon materials (NC, CC) are obtained by burning two kinds of six‐carbon alkane, n‐hexane, and cyclohexane, respectively. They are used as negative electrode additives for lead‐carbon batteries (LCBs) that could considerably improve the performance of LCB cycle life. 0.1 wt% NC (0.1NC) shows the best high rate partial state of charge cycle performance (5350) which is 3.6 times of CC and 1.2 times of commercial conductive carbon black. Furthermore, in the charging acceptance test, the initial instantaneous constant voltage charging receiving current of 0.1NC is 7.81 A, which is increased by 167% compared with 0.1EC (2.92 A). The synergistic effect of high graphitization structure, small specific surface area, and abundant carboxyl functional groups may be the reason for NC's good performance.

Hierarchical tubular porous carbon derived from mulberry branches for long-life lead-carbon battery

Lead-carbon batteries (LCBs) possess remarkable technical merits over traditional lead-acid batteries, and the development of applicable carbon-based negative additives is considered as an essential mission for the further exponential advancement of LCBs. Herein, hierarchical tubular porous carbon (HTPC) with high specific surface area derived from mulberry branches was synthesized while evaluating the role of activation temperature on the structural evolution. As a result, the increase of activation temperature improves the specific surface area, reduces the graphitization degree of HTPC, whereas intrinsic tubular structure would collapse under high activation temperature. The critical function of HTPC as negative additive in LCBs is exhaustively elaborated, where the LCBs with 1.2 % HTPC deliver a discharge capacity of 165.4 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C compared with 140.5 mAh g−1 of blank sample. Especially, the cyclic life of LCBs under HRPSoC condition is tremendously extended by 3.17 times compared with the control sample. The performance improvement is attributed to the cooperation of HTPC with excellent conductivity, high specific surface, rich functional groups, and abundant tubular array structures, which facilitate the reduction of the internal resistance, increase the conversion rate of active materials, and inhibit the irreversible sulphation on negative lead. The proposed research provides a sustainable and scalable strategy to recycle the agricultural waste into outstanding carbon materials for high-performance LCBs.

Lead single atoms anchored on reduced graphene oxide as multifunctional additive for lead–carbon battery

The application of lead–carbon batteries (LCBs) in hybrid electric vehicles and large-scale energy storage was limited by gradual sulfation and parasitic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) of negative plates. Here, Pb single atoms anchored on reduced graphene oxide (PbSAs@rGO) were prepared through electrostatic adsorption and thermal reduction method, and confirmed by two aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (TEM and STEM) and synchrotron-based X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (XAFS). By anchoring PbSAs on rGO surfaces where HER is prone to occur, the HER rate was greatly reduced. Moreover, PbSAs could serve as seeds to induce three-dimensional growth of Pb branches, which endows the NAM containing PbSAs@rGO additives with a specific surface areas (SSA) about 2.3 times than that of control one. The increased SSA can help to delay the sulfation of negative plate. Meanwhile, PbSAs can help enhance the affinity of rGO towards negative active material (NAM), which enable electrochemical reduction reaction proceeds at a higher rate. Thanks to the coordination of various functions from multifunctional additives, service life of LCBs under high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) have been extend from 3529 to 16,097 cycles, and from 4692 to 22,606 cycles, in 50% state of charge (SoC) and 75% SoC, respectively.

Investigation of lead particles loading on the surface of activated carbon on the performance of lead carbon batteries and its potential mechanisms

Loading lead particles on the surface of activated carbon (AC) is an effective strategy to further improve the performance of lead carbon batteries (LCBs). However, the influence of lead particle size on the properties of AC is ignored. Herein, AC loaded with lead phosphate particles of different sizes by ultrasonic adsorption is prepared. The results show that large size lead phosphate particles are conducive to the formation of lead carbon connection interphase with tens of microns, so as to avoid the electronic path failure of AC caused by sulfation. Moreover, with the increase of lead phosphate particle size, the cycle life under high rate partial state of charge (HRPSoC) and the capacity retention rate after 150 deep cycles under 60 % state of charge (SoC) increase by 49.12 % and 47.2 % respectively.

N-doped reduced graphene oxide loading nano lead oxide as negative additive for enhanced properties of lead-carbon batteries

The use of carbon materials could significantly increase the cycle life of lead-acid batteries (LABs) by inhibiting the irreversible sulfation. However, it will exacerbate hydrogen evolution side reaction at the negative plates, which not only reduce coulombic efficiency, destroy the plate microstructure, but also accelerate moisture loss. Herein, a N-doped reduced graphene oxide/lead oxide nanoparticles(N-rGO/PbO) composite was synthesized by hydrothermal and calcination process. Comparative studies found that the strategy of loading with metal oxide nanoparticles, which with high hydrogen evolution overpotentials (ηH), and N-doped can retard the rate of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on composite materials. In addition, the resultant composite can help to promote the uniform distribution of graphene in negative active materials (NAM) and structural stability of the negative plate and enhance the combination between the additive and NAM. Thanks to the superiority of the prepared composite material additives, the high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) life of lead-carbon battery (LCB) containing the composite additive shown a prominent enhancement. Specifically, the simulated micro battery containing 0.50 wt% N-rGO/PbO additive showed the best cycle life (17390 cycles), compared to that with same content rGO additive (7742 cycles) and that without any carbon additive (2777 cycles). What’s more, by adding 0.50 wt% N-rGO/PbO additive, the initial discharge capacity of simulated micro battery could be enhanced from 145.6 to 162.6 mAh g−1 and the rate capability had also been improved. In summary, the N-rGO/PbO composite manifests great potential in lead-carbon batteries for improving HRPSoC cycle life and discharge capacity.

Interfacial characteristics of Na2FePO4F and its carbon coated material for lithium/sodium hybrid ion battery

• The higher-capacity Na 2 FePO 4 F@C material was prepared by the hydrothermal-doping method. • The prepared cathode material was assembled into a lead–carbon battery. • The coulomb efficiency of cathode material was almost 100% after 40 cycles. The interfacial characterization of the cathode material Na 2 FePO 4 F with carbon capping material Na 2 FePO 4 F@C taking bagasse as the carbon source is reported. Both the higher-capacity Na 2 FePO 4 F@C material (93 mAh/g) and lower-capacity Na 2 FePO 4 F material (10 mAh/g) showed different degrees of capacity decay during cycling. The rupture and spontaneous repair process of the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film resulting in increased impedance and blocked charge transfer, as well as irreversible changes in the surface microstructure of the electrode material after cycling, which are responsible for the decrease in capacity. The XRD and FTIR results before and after cycling shown that the characteristic peaks of the carbon coated material Na 2 FePO 4 F@C and raw material Na 2 FePO 4 F were consistent, indicated that their functional groups and crystalline structures are not the main causes of capacity decay at low cycling times (within 50 cycles).

PbO nanoparticles anchored on reduced graphene oxide for enhanced cycle life of lead-carbon battery

The composites of PbO nanoparticles anchored on reduced graphene oxide (PbO@rGO) are prepared by electrostatic interaction and ostwald ripening strategy to enhance cycle life of lead-carbon battery under high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC). By occupying the hydrogen evolution reactive sites on the rGO surfaces, the PbO@rGO composite exhibits better inhibition for hydrogen evolution behavior than the rGO. Thus, introducing the composite additives to negative plates can effectively inhibit the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and alleviate the aggregation of PbSO4 crystals simultaneously, resulting in their HRPSoC cycle life show 2.6-fold enhancements compared with negative plates without any carbon additives (extend from 3501 to 12,885 cycles). The chemical bond between the rGO and PbO nanoparticles can not only help solve the "floating carbon" phenomenon, but also effectively avoid the separation of the additive and the negative active material (NAM) during the cycles. In addition, the PbO@rGO additives can act like a miniaturized stereo plate grid, which refines and expands the conductive network on the plate and provides deposition sites for Pb/PbSO4 redox couple. Outstanding performance of the batteries containing composite additives indicates that the composites have potential application value in the lead-carbon battery while providing a new idea for preparing lead-carbon composite.

Leaching of waste tin indium oxide glass components and its application as negative additive of lead-carbon cells

In2O3 plays an important role in inhibiting hydrogen evolution reaction of lead-carbon battery (LCB). In this study, high purity indium hydroxide obtained by leaching tin indium oxide (ITO) glass waste has been applied in lead-carbon cell. Compared with ordinary lead-carbon cell, hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) of lead-carbon cell with added ITO recovery (R-ITO) is effectively inhibited.Under high-rate partial state-of-charge (HRPSoC) operation, cells with 0.1%R-ITO and 0.3 % conductive carbon black (CB) showed the best cycle performance (17,632), which was 2.3 times than lead-carbon cell with 0.3 % CB (7746) and 11.9 times than conventional lead-acid cell without additive (1485). Under different current densities, the capacity of lead-carbon cell with waste ITO has been significantly improved, and has a high reversible capacity.

Levelized cost of storage (LCOS) analysis of BESSs in Romania

Storage systems represent one of the key solutions for improving the reliability of electricity networks as there is an increase of intermittent electricity generated especially by photovoltaic (PV) systems. The cost and performance are the main elements considered in choosing the suitable storage system. As the price for every kWh injected into the network and battery energy storage system (BESS) costs are dynamic, the household and industrial consumers who want to integrate a battery in their PV system may have difficulties choosing between the commercially batteries available on the Romanian market. This study presents a different approach for identifying the most profitable battery technology used by household and industrial consumers as storage systems. A market research was conducted to determine the available battery technologies and their technical performances. This paper examines the effect of subsidies offered within the Romanian programs that promote the integration of storage systems in renewable-based energy systems. The levelized cost of storage (LCOS) method and the sensitivity analysis performed indicate that the lead-carbon battery is the most feasible solution. This investigation provides valuable up-to-date information for household and industrial consumers in their decision-making process.

Performance study of large capacity industrial lead‑carbon battery for energy storage

Electrochemical energy storage is a vital component of the renewable energy power generating system, and it helps to build a low-carbon society. The lead-carbon battery is an improved lead-acid battery that incorporates carbon into the negative plate. It compensates for the drawback of lead-acid batteries' inability to handle instantaneous high current charging, and it has the benefits of high safety, high-cost performance, and sustainable development. The recycling efficiency of lead-carbon batteries is 98 %, and the recycling process complies with all environmental and other standards. Deep discharge capability is also required for the lead-carbon battery for energy storage, although the depth of discharge has a significant impact on the lead-carbon battery's positive plate failure. This study optimizes and enhances the lead-carbon battery's positive plate, allowing it to perform both high-current charging (340.255 A) and deep discharge (70 % DOD) operations. Selecting acceptable lead alloys, improving the structure of the positive grid, and regulating the grid's curing and drying processes are all part of the optimization and improvement process. The upgraded lead-carbon battery has a cycle life of 7680 times, which is 93.5 % longer than the unimproved lead-carbon battery under the same conditions. The large-capacity (200 Ah) industrial lead-carbon batteries manufactured in this paper is a dependable and cost-effective energy storage option.

Frequency division and optimizing capacity technology for hybrid energy storage system considering load smoothing

There is a problem that how to optimize the allocation of hybrid energy storage system (HESS) economically on user-side. To solve this, a planning and scheduling method of HESS considering load smoothing is proposed. Firstly, an optimization model of energy storage system (ESS) considering energy storage life and peak-shaving rate is established, which is used to determine the rated power, rated capacity of ESS, and the charge and discharge power at each moment of the day. Then, this paper constructs a HESS consisting of lead-carbon battery (Pb-C) and supercapacitor. Variational mode decomposition (VMD) algorithm was used to extract peak load. The peak load is smoothed by super capacitor, and the composite load after peak load optimization is smoothed by Pb-C. Finally, solving the optimization model of HESS by mixed integer linear programming (MILP). And the results of the calculation examples show that the optimization method of HESS proposed in this paper not only reduces peak load effectively, but also improves benefits of HESS under the background of time-of-use electricity price.

A closed-loop acetic acid system for recovery of PbO@C composite derived from spent lead-acid battery

The current hydrometallurgical recovery routes of spent lead paste generate a large amount of acid/alkali residual filtrate, bringing significant technical and environmental challenge. In this study, the low-impurity lead acetate solution was prepared by reacting desulfurized paste with acetic acid (HAc), which then reacted with citric acid to synthesize high-quality lead citrate. Further crystallizing lead citrate into larger size enhanced the filtration and separation performance. The filtrate containing 95% dose of HAc could be recirculated for leaching the next batch of desulfurized paste, so a closed-loop process of leaching reagent was realized. The leady oxide comprising carbon (PbO@C) composite was synthesized via calcination of lead citrate. Compared with the traditional lead-acid battery, the novel lead-carbon battery made of PbO@C composite showed better electrochemical performance. The green recovery process of spent lead paste proposed in this research provided a sustainable strategy to recover secondary lead via a closed-loop route.

Selection of Electrochemical Energy Storage Types Based on Renewable Energy Storage Technology

With the strong support of the national new energy policy, higher requirements are put forward for the flexible regulation ability base on the power system. It is the key factor of the flexible regulation ability of the system. How to achieve better new energy consumption through reasonable selection of energy storage types has become an urgent problem to be solved. In view of this, this paper establishes an energy storage type selection model and analyzes a numerical example. The conclusion is that lead-carbon battery and lithium-ion battery have different advantages: lead battery is more suitable for small-scale new energy consumption. Although lithium-ion battery is superior to lead-carbon battery in construction, operation and maintenance, it has more cycles, avoids frequent replacement, and has high battery conversion efficiency. With the further decline of battery manufacturing cost, the benefit of investing in energy storage system will be further improved. The conclusion can provide a basis for formulating relevant policies

A New Type of Activated Acetylene Black and PbSO4 Hybrid Material as A High-performance Lead-carbon Batteries Anode Additive

Acetylene black (AB) is used extensively as a primary carbon material additive for traditional lead-acid batteries negative electrodes. Here we prepared an activated acetylene black@PbSO4 hybrid composite (PPA) via a simple microwave method to replace the original AB material as a more suitable anode carbon material additive for lead-carbon batteries. In battery performance tests, addition of acetylene black@PbSO4 composite can greatly improve the electrochemical activity of the negative plate. The high-rate partial charge state (HRPSoC) life of the lead-carbon battery with 5 wt% acetylene black@PbSO4 hybrid composite reaches nearly 26000 times, which is 33.1 times that of the blank battery (785). The composite in the negative electrode can also effectively suppress the hydrogen evolution effect caused by the addition of AB in the negative electrode plate.

Influence of Lead Particles Loading on the Surface of Activated Carbon on the Performance of Lead Carbon Batteries and its Potential Mechanisms

Influence of Lead Particles Loading on the Surface of Activated Carbon on the Performance of Lead Carbon Batteries and its Potential Mechanisms

Optimization Strategy of Configuration and Scheduling for User-Side Energy Storage

In order to reduce the impact of load power fluctuations on the power system and ensure the economic benefits of user-side energy storage operation, an optimization strategy of configuration and scheduling based on model predictive control for user-side energy storage is proposed in this study. Firstly, considering the cost and benefits of energy storage comprehensively, an energy storage configuration optimization model with the highest annualized net income as the goal is built to determine the parameters for configuring energy storage. Then, with the goal of maximizing the profit during the scheduling period, pre-month scheduling optimization model, day-ahead scheduling optimization model and intra-day scheduling optimization model are established. The goal of the pre-month scheduling optimization model is to determine the maximum monthly demand; part of the scheduling results in the day-ahead scheduling optimization model directly participate in the intra-day scheduling; the intra-day rolling optimization relies on the advantages of real-time feedback and closed-loop scheduling to smooth out power fluctuations caused by load forecast errors. Finally, the configuration and economic benefit of lithium iron phosphate batteries, lead-carbon batteries and sodium-sulfur batteries are analyzed and compared, and scheduling analysis is performed. The simulation results show that the proposed optimization method can cut peaks and fill valleys, ensure the economic benefits of users, and provide guidance for users to invest in energy storage.

Hierarchical porous carbon material regenerated from natural bamboo-leaf: How to improve the performance of lead-carbon batteries?

Lead-carbon battery is supposed as the promising candidate for lead-acid battery for energy storage application ascribed to the unique performance under the high-rate-partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC). Herein, a bamboo-leaf hierarchical porous carbon material (BLHPC) is successfully generated as the lead-carbon batteries negative electrode additive. BLHPC manifests hierarchical and multidirectional porous structure with broad size distribution and large specific surface area (2595 m 2 g −1 ), which is attributed to the abundant hollow structure in bamboo-leaf and etching of biogenetic SiO 2 nanoparticles. In electrochemical characterization, BLHPC presents high specific capacitance (252 F g −1 at 0.5 A g −1 ) and remarkable rate capability (68.6% retention rate at 10 A g −1 ). Furthermore, cycle life of simulated battery with 0.5 wt% BLHPC (56700) is twice that of the same amount of commercial rice-husk carbon (RHC) material additive (23701) and 7.6 times for blank battery (7455). The battery performance enhancement owes to the high surface area and hierarchical porous structure of BLHPC to mitigate the sulfation and promote electrolyte permeation. • Bamboo-leaf hierarchical porous carbon material (BLHPC) is successfully generated. • BLHPC manifests large specific surface area and high specific capacitance. • Cycle life of simulated battery with 0.5 wt% BLHPC is significantly improved. • The structure of BLHPC mitigates sulfation and promotes electrolyte permeation.