LCIA Methods Research Articles

Comparative analysis of life cycle assessment of biogas-powered and coal-powered power plant for optimized environmental operation

The major concerns that mankind faces today are limited reserves of conventional energy, growing energy demand, and environmental pollution. This study depicts a comparative analysis done for the life cycle assessment of the biogas-based plant and coal-based plant designed for Bikaji Foods International Ltd., India. OpenLCA version 1.11.0 software was used with the database ecoinvent 3.3 LCIA methods (ReCiPe Midpoint H) to analyze the environmental impact and investigate the effect of the biogas-based plant and the coal-based plant. The functional unit of 1 MJ of energy generated from biogas and coal was selected to represent the results of the production of 15,271,600 MJ of energy. The results for marine eutrophication, particulate matter formation, photochemical oxidant formation and terrestrial acidification for the biogas-based plant were 734.527 kg N-Eq, 6314.012 kg PM10-Eq, 1328.629 kg NMVOC and 3.933E04 kg SO2-Eq, respectively. Whereas, for coal-based plant, these values were 4919.442 kg N-Eq, 1.962E04 kg PM10-Eq, 6486.987 kg NMVOC and 13.448E04 kg SO2-Eq, respectively. The greenhouse gas emissions and fossil depletion from the biogas-based plant were found negligible as compared to the coal-based plant. Overall, it was found that the biogas-based plant has a more remunerative impact on the environment than the coal-based plant. This study recommends that local authorities and industrial communities should invest more and more in increasing the number of biogas plants at domestic as well as commercial levels and secure a clean and green future for coming generations.

Characteristic evaluation and environmental validation of self-compacting concrete containing sandstone slurry waste for sustainable usage.

This study aims to understand the impact of concrete ingredients on the environment. To analyze the effect of, three significant indexes have been taken into consideration, which are embodied carbon dioxide index (e-CO2), embodied energy consumption (e-energy), and embodied resource consumption (e-resource) index. The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology has considered veto comprehending the probable application of sandstone waste in the form of a slurry (Sslurry) and powder (Spowder) for the development of self-compacting concrete (SCC). This study can be proven beneficial to evaluate the potential adverse effects from environmental and energy perspectives. One reference mix and eighteen design mixes of SCC have been designed and developed to perform an experimental program. An environmental impact comparison of the "hybrid" SCC was performed using the OpenLCA life cycle analysis software with Ecoinvent LCIA methods. The outcomes of this experimental program reveal that the partial replacement of pozzolana Portland cement (PPC) with Sslurry can reduce e-CO2 emission along with the e-energy and e-resource parameters. When Spowder was used as the partial substitution of fine aggregate (FA), only the e-resource index decreased, and e-CO2 and e-energy increased. Minimalist impact on the environment has been noticed when SCC is prepared with Sslurry and Spowder. A detailed LCA analysis study justifies the utilization of Sslurry and Spowder in SCC, which exhibits encouraging results concerning strength and quality. Hence, it was observed that Sslurry and Spowder in developing green and sustainable SCC with moderate strength characteristics are beneficial from an environmental impact perspective.

Development of a life cycle impact assessment methodology for animal welfare with an application in the poultry industry

To date, assessment of animal welfare impacts remains largely unconsidered in life cycle assessment (LCA). Two previous attempts have been made to integrate animal welfare assessment into the LCA framework, both of which are insufficient in their coverage of the numerous factors contributing to animal welfare impacts. Here, a novel type 1 (i.e., reference scale) life cycle impact assessment method is proposed for animal welfare assessment of laying hens. This includes identification of all requisite components of a life cycle impact assessment method (i.e., area of protection, stakeholder and impact categories, impact subcategories, inventory indicators and data requirements, and characterization factors) based on a review of the animal welfare literature, in line with best practices in both the animal welfare science, and life cycle assessment fields. The proposed method is subsequently tested using a case study of the Canadian egg industry, and levels of relative risk for different impact subcategories related to animal biological health, behaviour, and affective state are calculated. This method provides results in line with expectations based on the animal welfare literature. Further, the process used for development of this method is generalizable, and may be applied to development of similar methods for assessment of other livestock species, as the area of protection, stakeholder and impact categories, and impact subcategories are not species specific. This method improves upon previous efforts to incorporate animal welfare assessment into the LCA framework. Continued improvement is necessary however, particularly with respect to incorporation of additional hen life cycle stages, modeling of affective state and positive welfare contributions, and uncertainty assessment. Continued development of animal welfare LCIA methods is necessary given the growing status of animal welfare as an issue of concern worldwide, and to ensure net-positive sustainability outcomes in food systems.

Life Cycle Assessment of Wastewater Treatment in a Refinery with Focus on the Desalting Process

During refining operations, desalting wastewater provides 10-30% of the total wastewater volumes and contains 40-70% of the pollutants in the wastewater treatment unit. Desalting consists of removing impurities from the crude oil with washing water. The discharge of treated water into the receptor environment is controlled according to standards regulation. However, due to human health and environmental risks, a multi-criteria and multi-stage analysis must be carried out. This present study aims to identify critical sources of wastewater treatment impacts from desalting operations. Life cycle assessment (LCA) with LCIA methods namely Recipe, CML-IA, TRACI, and USETOX were used in Gabi Software. According to this study, fossil fuel-based, electricity generation is the major contributor to negative output flows with about 99%. Emissions of CO2, CO, NOx, SOx, and COV during electricity generation influence the global warming potential through the greenhouse effect, acidification potential that causes acid rains, and photochemical oxidation potential relative to smog. Uncertainty relative to toxicity results does not allow conclusive points to be made. The inclusion of the desalting process in LCA of wastewater treatment is relevant for a comprehensive analysis. The preliminary results obtained during this work will be used in future LCAs in Africa to develop an environmental assessment database.

Effect of Star Rating Improvement of Residential Buildings on Life Cycle Environmental Impacts and Costs

A diagnostic framework is proposed to assess the influence of star rating improvement for residential buildings on life cycle environmental impacts and life cycle costs (LCEI and LCC) using life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing methods, respectively, on all life cycle phases (i.e., construction, operation, maintenance, and disposal). A reference house was modified on the basis of six alternative designs to deliver a particular star rating in order to demonstrate the analysis framework. Two LCIA methods (i.e., material flows/add masses and eco-indicator 99 Australian substances) were used to estimate ten LCEI indicators under two categories: seven from problem-oriented (i.e., raw material, air emission, water emission, eco-toxicity, acidification/eutrophication potential, ozone depletion, and climate change) and three from damage-oriented (i.e., resource depletion, ecosystem quality, and effect on human health) categories. The three damage-oriented indicators were combined to evaluate environmental and economic wellbeing on a single eco-point basis. All these combinations of impact indicators can offer three lines of analytical options along with star rating: problem-oriented, damage-oriented, and a variety of problem and damage-oriented LCEIs with LCCs. Hence, the optimum house selection is-based not only on cost or star rating, but also on LCEIs.

Relevance of Impact Categories and Applicability of Life Cycle Impact Assessment Methods from an Automotive Industry Perspective

Climate change impacts have been extensively addressed in academia, politics and industry for decades. However, particularly within the scientific community, the importance of considering further impact categories to ensure holistic environmental assessment and avoid burden shifting is strongly emphasized. Since considering all impact categories might become overwhelming for industry, a prioritization approach can support practitioners to focus their efforts on the most relevant impacts. Therefore, within this paper, an approach for the identification of relevant impact categories is developed for the automotive sector together with Volkswagen AG. The evaluation is conducted using a criteria set including criteria groups “relevance for automotive sector” and “relevance for stakeholders”. For the impact categories identified as relevant, an evaluation of LCIA methods is conducted considering the methodologies CML and ReCiPe 2016 and the methods recommended by PEF. The results demonstrate that climate change is by far the most relevant impact category followed by resource use, human toxicity and ecotoxicity from both automotive and stakeholder perspective. Based on the evaluation of the LCIA methods, a combination of different methods can be recommended. This work provides guidance for the automotive sector to prioritize its focus on the most relevant impact categories and to select applicable LCIA methods for their quantification.

Eco-friendly ceramic bricks: a comparative study of life cycle impact methods.

The growing need for natural resources for the production of inputs for construction, such as ceramic bricks, as well as the high rates of solid waste generation in the sector, makes construction an industrial segment with unfavorable environmental effects. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) emerges as a tool capable of assisting in the quantification and analysis of the impacts associated with construction materials, whether traditional or alternative. Thus, the goal of this paper is to assess the environmental impacts associated with the development of alternative building materials. To compare the conventional and the alternative bricks, both were evaluated according to the LCIA methods Ecoindicator 99, IMPACT 2002+, and ReCiPe 2016, in the midpoint and endpoint levels. The sensitivity analysis was carried out considering as an alternative input for the firing process, a mixture composed of wood and biomass originating from the Pennisetum purpureum. According to Ecoindicator 99 method, the categories respiratory organics, fossil fuels, and radiation stand out, which showed greater sensitivity in altering the input used in the firing process, reducing their impacts by 38.38%, 34.68%, and 31.81%, respectively, when comparing product III (ceramic brick incorporated with OSPW and submitted to the firing process with the mix of wood and Pennisetum purpureum) and product I (ceramic brick incorporated with OSPW and submitted to the traditional firing process). In addition, in the respiratory organics category, the IMPACT 2002+ method showed a reduction of approximately 43% of the impacts associated with product III, when compared to the product with the greatest impact in this category. In a global analysis of the results presented by the ReCiPe 2016 method, the product III had the lowest associated environmental impact when compared to the other evaluated systems.

Operationalising emission and toxicity modelling of pesticides in LCA: the OLCA-Pest project contribution

PurposeCurrent field emission modelling and toxicity characterisation of pesticides suffer from several shortcomings like mismatches between LCI databases and LCIA methods, missing characterisation factors, missing environmental compartments, and environmental impact pathways. The OLCA-Pest project was implemented to address these aspects and to operationalise the assessment of pesticides in LCA. Based on this effort, we propose an approach to integrate pesticide emissions into LCI databases.MethodsThe PestLCI Consensus Model has been developed in order to estimate emission fractions to different environmental compartments. The initial distribution fractions should be linked to the compartments air, agricultural soil, natural soil, and freshwater. Emissions to off-field surfaces are hereby distributed between agricultural soil, natural soil, and freshwater by using surface cover data. Deposition on the crop surface should be recorded in an emission compartment crop with 13 sub-compartments for crop archetypes for both food and non-food uses. Default emission fractions are provided to calculate the emission fractions for different pesticide application scenarios.Results and discussionA sensitivity analysis shows the effects of the application technique, drift reduction, crop and development stage, field width, and buffer zone on the initial distribution fractions of field-applied pesticides. Recommendations are given for the implementation of a set of default initial distribution fractions into LCI databases, for the organisation of metadata, and for the modelling of pesticide residues in food along the supply chain (processing, storage). Priorities for further research are: improving the modelling of pesticide secondary emissions, further extending emission modeling (e.g. additional application techniques, including cover crops), considering metal-based pesticides in emission models, and systematically assessing human health impacts associated with pesticide residues in food crops.ConclusionsThe proposed approach allows to preserve the mass balance of the pesticide emitted after application, to make a consistent assessment of ecotoxicity and human toxicity, to define a clear and consistent interface between the LCI and LCIA phases, to estimate initial emission distribution fractions based on existing data, to document metadata transparently and efficiently within crop datasets, and to model the removal of pesticide residues in food during processing.

Life cycle assessment of packaged organic dairy product: A comparison of different methods for the environmental assessment of alternative scenarios

Nowadays Life Cycle Assessment is usually adopted to evaluate the carbon footprint and water footprint of packaged foods considering the whole supply chain, but not many studies compare the results coming from the adoption of different Life Cycle Impact Assessment methodologies. Adopting the IPCC 2013, IPCC 2013 incl. CO2 uptake, ILCD 2011 Midpoint +, ReCiPe 2016 and AWARE methods, this study aims to investigate the environmental impact of an organic Parmigiano Reggiano cheese produced in Italy. We demonstrated that the application of different LCIA methods gives different impact results for the same product: for example, global warming was lower with ILCD 2011 and IPCC 2013 CO2 uptake methods than IPCC 2013 and ReCiPe 2016. Moreover, the water footprint resulted different using ILCD 2011 midpoint + method, since it considers a European consumption of water, the AWARE, based on global average consumption, and the ReCiPe that considers the regionalized impacts. Overall, agricultural and breeding phases had a relevant contribution because of the use of water and greenhouse gas emissions from livestock and their daily feed. However, using renewable energy, such as biogas plants or photovoltaic panels, the paper demonstrated that the water and carbon footprint can be reduced.

The impacts of plastic products on air pollution - A simulation study for advanced life cycle inventories of plastics covering secondary microplastic production

A framework, SecµPlast, to include secondary microplastic (MP) formation due to photooxidation into current Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) from cradle-to-grave of products. The framework details how to incorporate secondary MP formation into the plastic's life cycle as related to the plastic's use phase, and location specific waste treatment and how to connect the impacts with current life cycle impact assessment methodologies (LCIA). Plastics, now ubiquitous in the environment are a potential source of emerging pollution and have been shown to have negative effects of various species. Thus, the framework consist of 1) a degradation module, which accounts for micro- and nano- plastic formation with dynamic degradation of microparticles, 2) an emissions module accounts for the potential of the plastic particles to be emitted to air, and 3) an impacts module which connects the various emissions to existing LCIA methods. The framework allows for quantification of secondary microplastic in an LCA context and for further characterization of the impacts at endpoints in terms of human health, and allows for a high level of regionalization, both in terms of input data and characterization of impact damages. SecµPlast was tested on a case study of mulch film which showed that the per kg contribution to particulate matter (PM) and other impacts is low. The impacts vary largely depending on the degradation rate and ranged from 9.24×10 −6 to 0.00043 kg PM equivalents per kg of mulch film, depending on either a slow or fast degradation rate, respectively. The impact came mostly from the littered fraction, which was estimated to be 10% of the products weight after the use phase, in Europe. The degradation rates due to UV degradation were low, 0.034 µg/year for a slow degradation rate, compared to values derived from the literature, 0.345 µg/year for a fast degradation rate during littering, that included other sources of degradation, such as abrasion. However, when these impacts are scaled up to the European consumption of plastics and monetized, it is evident that even small increases of PM are costly for society and could potentially amount to millions of dollars per year in human health damages. Further research efforts should focus on filling data gaps, such as microplastic losses during production, recycling and potentially incineration, as well as degradation kinetics including other degradation factors such as freeze/thawing, wet/drying in combination with UV degradation.

Linkage of impact pathways to cultural perspectives to account for multiple aspects of mineral resource use in life cycle assessment

Important advances have been made to define the multiple impact pathways relating mineral resource use to the area of protection (AoP) natural resources in life cycle assessment (LCA). Yet, the link between stakeholders’ interests and the aspects relevant to resource use as addressed by existing impact assessment methods has so far only marginally been explored. This article proposes to go beyond the case-specific determination of stakeholders’ interests (and the associated selection of impact assessment method) by defining multiple groups of different values based on cultural perspectives, in order to determine the corresponding relevant impact pathways and assessment methods.Relying on the Cultural Theory and related potential development scenarios, we identify socio-economic objectives and resource management strategies that fit the egalitarian, individualist and hierarchist perspectives. Our analysis reveals that different aspects of resource use may be most relevant to assess for each perspective since they pursue different socio-economic objectives. Egalitarians are expected to prioritize the long-term availability of geological stocks for future generations by keeping extraction flows to a minimum to reach global sufficiency, and individualists, to safeguard their short-term accessibility to resources by managing their supply risk. Hierarchists are likely to aim to maximize the value obtained from resources globally, and could thus focus on addressing dissipative flows. Building on this analysis, we provide a proposal for a more holistic assessment of the impact pathways linked to mineral resource use using existing LCIA methods, and identify ways forward for method developments to come.

The environmental and social footprint of the university of the Basque Country UPV/EHU

This work has calculated the organisational environmental and social footprint of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) in 2016. First, input and output data flows of the UPV/EHU activity were collected. Next, the environmental and social impacts of the academic activity were modelled, using the Ecoinvent 3.3 database with the PSILCA-based Soca v1 module in openLCA software. In order to evaluate the environmental impacts, CML and ReCiPe LCIA methods were used. The Social Impact Weighting Method was adjusted for the assessment of specific social impacts.The modelling has identified some hotspots in the organisation. The contribution of transport (8,900 km per user, annually) is close to 60% in most of the environmental impacts considered. The life cycle of computers stands out among the impacts derived from the consumption of material products. More than half of environmental impacts are located outside the Basque Country. This work has also made it possible to estimate some of the impacts of the organisational social footprint, such as accidents at work, only some of which occur at the UPV/EHU. Traces of child labour and illiteracy have also been detected in the social footprint that supports the activity of the UPV/EHU. Some of the social and environmental impacts analysed are not directly generated by the UPV/EHU, but they all demand attention and co-responsibility.Based on the modelling performed, this work explores alternative scenarios and recommends some improvement actions which may reduce (in some cases over 30%) the environmental and social impacts of the UPV/EHU's activity. These scenarios and improvement actions will feed a process with stakeholders in the UPV/EHU based on the Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) methodology.

Abiotic resource use in life cycle impact assessment—Part II – Linking perspectives and modelling concepts

Starting from a lack of consensus on how to consistently assess abiotic resource use in life cycle assessment, a structured approach was developed to enable a classification of perspectives on resource use, based on the so-called role of resources. Using this classification, this paper focusses on analysing links between perspectives and modelling concepts, i.e. the conceptual implementation. To analyse the modelling concepts for a selection of existing LCIA methods and other modelling approaches, the concept of the system model is introduced. It defines the relevant inventory flows to be assessed by the LCIA method, and, at the same time, to be considered in the characterization model, and how the flows and stocks of resources used to calculate the characterization factors are positioned in relation to environment (nature) and economy (technosphere). For consistency, they should be aligned with the position of inventory flows and, at the same time, reflect the perspective on resources taken by the method. Using this concept, we critically review a selection of methods and other modelling approaches for consistency with the perspectives on resource use, as well as for their internal consistency. As a result of the analysis, we highlight inconsistencies and discuss ways to improve links between perspectives and modelling concepts. To achieve this, the new framework can be used for the development or improvement of LCIA methods on resource use.

Potential formation of PCDD/Fs in triclosan wastewater treatment: An overall toxicity assessment under a life cycle approach

Wastewater may contain a diverse group of unregulated pollutants known as emerging pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Triclosan (TCS) is a personal care product widely used as an antiseptic or preservative in cosmetics, hand wash, toothpaste and deodorant soaps. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been used as effective and alternative treatments for complex wastewater. However, an important criterion for the assessment of AOPs and their operation conditions could be the potential formation of new toxic secondary products, such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs), especially when emerging pollutants are present in the media. If these are omitted from environmental management studies, the real environmental impacts of a WWTPs (wastewater treatment plants) may be underestimated. Consequently, the current study aims to evaluate the environmental impacts derived from electrooxidation (EOX), one of the most effective oxidation technologies, of emerging pollutants using Life Cycle Assessment. The analyses were performed for the treatment of effluents containing TCS, firstly without considering the formation of PCDD/Fs and, thereafter, considering the effects of these compounds. Total toxicity, calculated through different methods and corresponding impact factors, were evaluated for each stage of the process when different electrolytes are used, including PCDD/Fs formation. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was carried out to study i) the effect of the TCS initial concentration on the environmental impacts associated to ecotoxicity for the different life cycle methods and ii) the influence of changing the organic pollutant on PCDD/Fs formation employing 2-chlorophenol (2-CP). As a result, LCIA methods demonstrate that they are not fully adapted to the computation of PCDD/Fs in the water compartment, since only 2,3,7,8-tetraclorodibenzo-p-dioxina (2,3,7,8-TCDD) is present as a substance in the impact categories assessed, ignoring the remaining list of PCDD/Fs.

Lessons learned from assessing life cycle impacts for an environmental product declaration: Examples for run-of-river power plant

When conducting life cycle assessments (LCA) for environmental product declarations (EPD), researchers struggle with many methodological questions. For certain products there are several standards (e.g. ISO and EN) and Product Category Rules (PCR) available which all seem applicable. These standards, however, might lead to different results. Depending on the standard, system boundaries might be drawn differently than typically done in ones preferred background database. Another common issue is a lack of a clear definition of assessment methods (version, download of factors) to be applied. Or on a more practical level, you might not know how or where to obtain certain requested figures from your LCA data or even how to start with building an appropriate model in the LCA-software. The authors of this paper explain each of these issues with an example from their practical work, provide their instant solutions and make suggestions for general improvement of the situation. In general, they call for a more precise and practical guideline and easy-to-use LCIA methods for conducting EPDs.

Review of Methodological Choices in LCA-Based Textile and Apparel Rating Tools: Key Issues and Recommendations Relating to Assessment of Fabrics Made From Natural Fibre Types

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a key tool for determining environmental impacts for textiles and apparel and is the basis for the publicly available Higg Material Sustainability Index (MSI) developed by the Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAC). This paper reviews and evaluates the Higg MSI with respect to rating of fabrics made from natural fibre types, with the aim of providing a constructive analysis of methodological issues identified by comparison with the International Standards and LCA guidelines. The major issues identified by the review were: (1) lack of sufficient guidance for comparative analysis and public disclosure; (2) incomplete system boundaries and the choice of functional unit; (3) the choice of attributional LCA methods and variable methods applied for handling multi-functionality; (4) use of generalised data and small datasets, without reported sensitivity or uncertainty; (5) exclusion of important impact categories, choice of LCIA methods and lack of coverage of non-LCA assessed issues; and (6) the choice of the weighting and normalisation approach. This review found that the provision of, and adherence to the appropriate standards and best practice in LCA would rectify most of these issues. To achieve the laudable aims of the Higg MSI, further development and refinement is needed to ensure robust information is provided to improve the sustainability of textiles.

Operationalisation and application of water supply mix (WSmix) at worldwide scale: how does WSmix influence the environmental profile of water supply for different users?

Purpose A worldwide-regionalized water supply mix (WSmix) has been developed for use in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies. The WSmix is the combination of water sources and water technologies to meet a water user need at a specific time (season, month) and location. A global database has been computed to collect information on water sources and users at country and river basin scales. However, its application to LCA case studies at different locations and for different users has not yet been fully tested and analysed. The aim of this study is to operationalise WSmix for application in LCA and to test the added value and usability of WSmix by applying it worldwide to two different systems, a service and a global product, considering different climatic and socio-economic conditions. Methods The WSmix is applied to two main water users, the results are analysed, and the variability of the WSmix for 91 countries with different socio-economic conditions is discussed. Some examples of the variability of the water sources mix (WOmix) and the temporal variation at river basin scale are presented. Results and discussion The results show that the WSmix has a great influence on the environmental profile of water supply for different users considering different climatic and socio-economic conditions. Moreover, the interdependence between water and energy (i.e. water-energy nexus) is clearly established, which reinforces the importance to link a regionalized WSmix with national/regionalized electricity mix. Conclusions In conclusion, the WSmix has been operationalised and applied in LCI databases. Its added value and usability has been demonstrated by applying it at a worldwide scale for two different users. Methodological developments are still required to increase its spatiotemporal resolution, and LCIA methods need to be improved to better consider its different components (including water sources).

Resource and environmental impacts of using second-hand laptop computers: A case study of commercial reuse

The circular economy is proposed to reduce environmental impact, but as yet, there is limited empirical evidence of this sort from studying real, commercial circular economy business cases. This study investigates the environmental impacts of using second-hand laptops, mediated by a commercial reuse operation, instead of new ones. The method used is life cycle assessment (LCA) and special attention is given to laptops’ metal resource use by using several complementary life cycle impact assessment methods. The results show that all activities required to enable reuse of laptops are negligible, despite the reuse company’s large geographical scope. Two principal features of reuse reduce environmental impacts. Firstly, use extension reduces all impacts considerably since there are large embedded impacts in components. Secondly, the reuse company steers non-reusable laptops into state-of-the-art recycling. This provides additional impact reductions, especially with regards to toxicity and metal resource use. The results for metal resource use however diverge between LCIA methods in terms of highlighted metals which, in turn, affects the degree of impact reduction. LCIA methods that characterise functionally recycled metals as important, result in larger impact reduction, since these emphasise the merits of steering flows into state-of-the-art recycling. The study thus demonstrates how using second-hand laptops, mediated by a commercial reuse operation, compared to new ones, in practice, reduces different types of environmental impact through synergistic relationships between reuse and recycling. Moreover, it illustrates how the choice of LCIA method can influence interpretations of metal resource use impacts when applying circular economy measures to information and communication technologies (ICT).

Defining freshwater as a natural resource: A framework linking water use to the area of protection natural resources.

While many examples have shown unsustainable use of freshwater resources, existing LCIA methods for water use do not comprehensively address impacts to natural resources for future generations. This framework aims to (1) define freshwater resource as an item to protect within the Area of Protection (AoP) natural resources, (2) identify relevant impact pathways affecting freshwater resources, and (3) outline methodological choices for impact characterization model development. Considering the current scope of the AoP natural resources, the complex nature of freshwater resources and its important dimensions to safeguard safe future supply, a definition of freshwater resource is proposed, including water quality aspects. In order to clearly define what is to be protected, the freshwater resource is put in perspective through the lens of the three main safeguard subjects defined by Dewulf et al. (2015). In addition, an extensive literature review identifies a wide range of possible impact pathways to freshwater resources, establishing the link between different inventory elementary flows (water consumption, emissions and land use) and their potential to cause long-term freshwater depletion or degradation. Freshwater as a resource has a particular status in LCA resource assessment. First, it exists in the form of three types of resources: flow, fund, or stock. Then, in addition to being a resource for human economic activities (e.g. hydropower), it is above all a non-substitutable support for life that can be affected by both consumption (source function) and pollution (sink function). Therefore, both types of elementary flows (water consumption and emissions) should be linked to a damage indicator for freshwater as a resource. Land use is also identified as a potential stressor to freshwater resources by altering runoff, infiltration and erosion processes as well as evapotranspiration. It is suggested to use the concept of recovery period to operationalize this framework: when the recovery period lasts longer than a given period of time, impacts are considered to be irreversible and fall into the concern of freshwater resources protection (i.e. affecting future generations), while short-term impacts effect the AoP ecosystem quality and human health directly. It is shown that it is relevant to include this concept in the impact assessment stage in order to discriminate the long-term from the short-term impacts, as some dynamic fate models already do. This framework provides a solid basis for the consistent development of future LCIA methods for freshwater resources, thereby capturing the potential long-term impacts that could warn decision makers about potential safe water supply issues in the future.

Accounting for the impact of agricultural land use practices on soil organic carbon stock and yield under the area of protection natural resources - Illustrated for Flanders

Management practices can affect strongly the quality of agricultural soil. One tool that may assist in sustainable farm management is life cycle (impact) assessment (LC(I)A). However, under the area of protection (AoP) natural resources, effects of land use on soil quality are rather poorly addressed. Additional LCIA methods are therefore needed to evaluate the impact of agricultural land use practices (LUP) on soil quality.In this study, we introduce three interdependent indicators which are situated along the cause-effect chain accounting for the effect of LUP on soil quality in relation to the AoP natural resources. As soil organic carbon (SOC) is a key feature of soil health and fertility, we describe soil quality in terms of the change in SOC stock and the corresponding change in yield. At midpoint, the indicators SOC change (SOC2) and biomass productivity loss (BPL), are proposed to indicate losses in SOC and yield, respectively, due to farm management choices. At endpoint, the indicator additional land requirement (ALR) is introduced to indicate the need of extra agricultural area necessary for provisioning of the lost biomass yield. Characterization factors were developed for a case study in Flanders. Different soil textures, initial SOC stocks, crop rotation systems and LUP were considered. Because the reference state is based on sustainable LUP, the developed framework may serve as a decision support tool towards a more sustainable agriculture.