Late Nineteenth-century France Research Articles

Divine Images of Hysteria in Emile Zola's Lourdes

In his late novel, Lourdes, Zola interweaves in a complex way his trademark medical descriptions with Catholic symbolism in order to depict the "mira-culous" healing of Marie de Guersaint, whose pilgrimage to the Shrine in Southern France lies at the center of the narrative. The reader acquainted with the "tare héréditaire" that plagues the Rougon-Macquart clan is not surprised to find that the same disorder, hysteria, is the source of the young woman's paralysis. Less expected, perhaps, is the prominence of metaphors drawn from popular Catholic belief, in particular, from the lives of Saints. Yet the convergence of hysteria and Catholic mysticism one finds in Lourdes accurately reflects a significant social phenomenon in late nineteenth-century France. Lourdes views the phenomenon of miraculous healing through the double optic of positivism and Catholic mysticism, drawing as much on Catholic lay representations of miracles as it does on clinical accounts of spontaneous recovery from psychosomatic illnesses. (KAC)

Henri Fayol as strategist: a nineteenth century corporate turnaround

Successful corporate turnarounds occur, thus avoiding liquidation, but historical examples are few. In late nineteenth century France Henri Fayol became managing director (CEO) of a vertically integrated iron and steel firm and made various decisions that retrieved the firm from the brink of liquidation. In examining his career, the competitive nature of the industry, and his decisions, it is suggested that he employed a deliberate and comprehensive corporate strategy to guide the firm toward its objectives. While he developed his theory of management from these experiences and claimed that its application was the primary cause of the turnaround, this paper suggests that there were several other factors at work.

The Mass Production of Craft Unionism: Exploring Workers' Solidarity in Late Nineteenth-Century France and America

The Mass Production of Craft Unionism: Exploring Workers' Solidarity in Late Nineteenth-Century France and America

Compassion and Scepticism in Child Sexual Abuse; Some Historical Aspects and Explanations

The sexual abuse of children is the subject of heated social debate. The general outrage with which this theme was placed on the public agenda in the 1970s has, to a considerable extent, made room for doubts about the reliability of children as witnesses and of professionals as their informants. History shows a parallel to this pendular movement in late nineteenth-century France; initial anxiety concerning the magnitude and seriousness of the sexual abuse of children, first expressed by Tardieu in the mid-19th century, turned later into scepticism. This article describes some of the aspects that play a role in the difficulty which society has in taking child sexual abuse seriously: the isolation of sexuality, ambivalences in the societal image of children, the status of parents and that of professionals.

Schools, discipline and community: diary-writing and schoolgirl culture in late nineteenth-century france

Abstract This article uses the case-study of one French boarding school in the nineteenth century to explore the characteristics of schoolgirl culture. Beginning with an analysis of the multiple effects of constant discipline within the school, the author argues for the existence of rules that sought to develop a sense of moral community among students. The teachers used the ideal of community to transmit feminine but not necessarily domestic values, particularly the virtues of obedience, selflessness and interdependence. But students did not passively absorb these institutional messages. The existence of a student diary, written from 1875 to 1881, allows the author to explore how students absorbed, transformed and challenged both the implicit and explicit messages within schools. The very act of writing her daily life allowed the diary writer, Eugénie Servant, to structure her sense of feminine identity. While Eugénie posed no radical challenge to the prevailing domestic ideology communicated within her school, through her writing, she reworked cultural messages to highlight her own special gifts. This case-study offers an insight, then, into how individuals could refashion the parameters of school life, allowing forms of autonomy that raise questions about the realities of French bourgeois domestic life

Schools, discipline and community: diary-writing and schoolgirl culture in late nineteenth-century France

Abstract This article uses the case-study of one French boarding school in the nineteenth century to explore the characteristics of schoolgirl culture. Beginning with an analysis of the multiple effects of constant discipline within the school, the author argues for the existence of rules that sought to develop a sense of moral community among students. The teachers used the ideal of community to transmit feminine but not necessarily domestic values, particularly the virtues of obedience, selflessness and interdependence. But students did not passively absorb these institutional messages. The existence of a student diary, written from 1875 to 1881, allows the author to explore how students absorbed, transformed and challenged both the implicit and explicit messages within schools. The very act of writing her daily life allowed the diary writer, Eugénie Servant, to structure her sense of feminine identity. While Eugénie posed no radical challenge to the prevailing domestic ideology communicated within her school, through her writing, she reworked cultural messages to highlight her own special gifts. This case-study offers an insight, then, into how individuals could refashion the parameters of school life, allowing forms of autonomy that raise questions about the realities of French bourgeois domestic life

Bibliography

BIBUOGRAPHY Anne Epstein The foUowing list of sdiolarly articles pubUshed in EngUsh since 1985 is presented to assist readers in keeping up with the latest scholarship on women's history and to fadtitate assessment of areas in whidi more researdi is needed. We try to ensure that these thematic bibliographies reflect the state of the field, although with the increasing volume of works on women now appearing we cannot guarantee they wül be exhaustive. In this issue we will focus on works on Art, Literature, and Performing Arts. Because space is limited, we have not included literary genres such as biography, autobiography, and personal narrative. Future bibtiographies wül hightight these forms, as weU as other aspects of cultural Ufe inducting Music and Popular Culture. The Journal's thematic bibUographies of current English-language scholarship serve to supplement our Journal of Women's History Guide to Periodical Literature (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992; 512 pp; ISBN 0-252-32219-7 (d), $39.95; ISBN 0-253-20720-7 (pb), $18.95). We are pleased to announce that a second volume of the Guide is currently in preparation. This ongoing bibliographical projed is part of the goal of the Journal of Women's History to serve as the journal of record for women's history in the United States and abroad. ART General Boime, Albert. "Maria Deraismes and Eva Gonzales: A Feminist Critique of TJne Loge aux Théâtre des Italiens/ " Woman's Art Journal 15 (FaU 1994/Winter 1995): 31-37. BonneU, Vidoria. "The Peasant Woman in Stalinist PoUtical Art of the 1930s." American Historical Review 98, no. 1 (1993): 55-82. Brown, Elizabeth A. " The Living Objecf : The Art CoUection of EUen H. Johnson." Allen Art Museum Bulletin 45, no. 1/2 (1992): 8-25. Burns, Sarah. "The Tïarnest, Untiring Worker' and the Magidan of the Brush: Gender PoUtics in the Criticism of Cedtia Beaux and John Singer Sargent." Oxford Art Journal 15, no. 1 (1992): 36-53. Cash, Stephanie. "The Art Critidsm and PoUtics of Lucy Lippard." Art Criticism 9, no. 1 (1994): 32-40. ©1995 Journal of Women's History, Vol 7 No. ζ (Summer) 1995 BIBUOGRAPHY 193 Crosthwaite, Jane F. " Ά White and Seamless Robe': CeUbacy and EquaUty in Shaker Art and Theory." Colby Library Quarterly 25 (September 1989): 188-198. DeLong, Lea Rosson. "Louise Noun: A Pioneer CoUedor of Women's Art." Woman's Art Journal 13 (FaU 1992/Winter 1993): 17-20. Dubrow, Gaü Lee. "Qaiming PubUc Space for Women's History in Boston: A Proposal for Preservation, PubUc Art, and PubUc Historical Interpretation ." Frontiers 13, no. 1 (1992): 111-148. Fahlman, Betsy. "Women Art Students at Yale, 1869-1913: Never True Sons of the University." Woman's Art Journal 12 (Summer 1991): 15-23. Fer, Briony. "Whaf s in a Line? Gender and Modernity." Oxford Art Journal 13, no. 1 (1990): 77-88. HeUand, Janice. "The Critics and the Arts and Crafts: The Instance of Margaret Macdonald and Charles Rennie Mackintosh." Art History Yl (June 1994): 209-227. Herzog, Charlotte. "A Rose by Any Other Name: Violet Oakley, Jessie WUcox Smith, and Elizabeth Shippen Green." Woman's Art Journal 14 (FaU 1993/Winter 1994): 11-16. Higonnet, Anne. "Writing the Gender of the Image: Art Critidsm in Late Nineteenth-Century France." Genders 6 (November 1989): 60-73. Hutton, John. "Mary Cassatf s Modern Woman and the Woman's Building of 1893." Feminist Studies 20 (Summer 1994): 318-348. Lambton, Gwenda. "ACoUaboration in Ottawa: The Saint-Vincent Hospital Mural." Woman's Art Journal 13 (Spring/Summer 1992): 19-22. LeaveU, Linda. "When Marianne Moore Buys Pictures." American Literary History 5 (Summer 1993): 250-271. Leßmann, Sabina. "Susanna Maria von Sandrart: Women Artists in Seventeenth -Century Nürnberg." Woman's Art Journal 14 (Spring/Summer 1993): 10-14. Marquardt-Cherry, Janet T. "Katja Oxman: Working in the Tradition of the Woman Artist." Woman's Art Journal 14 (Spring/Summer 1993): 21-27. Masten, April F. "Model Into Artist: The Changing Face of Art Historical Biography." Women's Studies 21, no. 1 (1992): 17-41. Mathews, Patrida. "Gender Analysis and the Work of Meyer Sdiapiro." Oxford Art Journal 17, no. 1 (1994): 81-91. McCuUough...

The Expanding Discourse: Feminism and Art History

* Introduction: The Expanding Discourse Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard. * The Virgins One Bare Breast: Nudity, Gender, and Religious Meaning in Tuscan Early Renaissance Culture Margaret R. Miles. * Women in Frames: The Gaze, the Eye, the Profile in Renaissance Portraiture Patricia Simons. * Leonardo da Vinci: Female Portraits, Female Nature M. D. Garrard. * The Taming of the Blue: Writing Out Color in Italian Renaissance Theory Patricia L. Reilly. * Botticellis Primavera: A Lesson for the Bride * Lilian Zirpolo. * Titians Sacred and Profane Love and Marriage Rona Goffen. * The Loggia dei Lanzi: A Showcase of Female Subjugation Yael Even. * The Erotics of Absolutism: Rubens and the Mystification of Sexual Violence Margaret D. Carroll. * The Muted Other: Gender and Morality in Augustan Rome and Eighteenth-Century Europe Natalie Boymel Kampen. * Secluded Vision: Images of Feminine Experience in Nineteenth-Century Europe Anne Higonnet. * Disagreeably Hidden: Construction and Constriction of the Lesbian Body in Rosa Bonheurs Horse Fair James M. Saslow. * LArt Fminin: The Formation of a Critical Category in Late Nineteenth-Century France Tamar Garb. * Morisots Wet Nurse: The Construction of Work and Leisure in Impressionist Painting Linda Nochlin. * Modernity and the Spaces of Femininity Griselda Pollock. * Edgar Degas and French Feminism, ca1880: The Young Spartans, the Brothel Monotypes, and the Bathers Revisited N. Broude. * Renoir and the Natural Woman T. Garb. * Going Native: Paul Gauguin and the Invention of Primitivist Modernism * Abigail Solomon-Godeau. * Gauguins Tahitian Body Peter Brooks. * The MoMAs Hot Mamas Carol Duncan. * Constructing Myths and Ideologies in Matisses Odalisques Marilynn Lincoln Board. * Ladies Shot and Painted: Female Embodiment in Surrealist Art Mary Ann Caws. * Culture, Politics, and Identity in the Paintings of Frida Kahlo Jaine Helland. * Egalitarian Vision, Gendered Experience: Women Printmakers and the WPA/FAP Graphic Arts Project Helen Langa. * Lee Krasner as LK Anne M. Wagner. * Georgia OKeeffe and Feminism: A Problem of Position Barbara Buhler Lynes. * Judy Chicagos Dinner Party: A Personal Vision of Womens History Josephine Withers. * Race RiotsCocktail PartiesBlack PanthersMoon Shots and Feminists: Faith Ringgolds Observations of the 1960s in America Lowery S. Sims. * Afrofemcentrism and Its Fruition in the Art of Elizabeth Catlett and Faith Ringgold Freida High W. Tesfagiorgis. * The Discourse of Others: Feminists and Postmodernism Craig Owens.

Credit, Consumption, and Images of Women's Desires: Selling the Sewing Machine in Late Nineteenth-Century France

It is doubtful if the history of the entire world can furnish an instance in which any single house . . . has had a growth so stupendous within an equal amount of time, declared a pamphlet published in 1880 by the Singer sewing machine company.' Singer could boast an empire, and it did, making its international success the centerpiece of the company's unprecedented advertising campaign. In France, as in other European countries, the company printed pamphlets to be distributed at world's fairs, given out in department stores, and carried by traveling salesmen or dry-goods merchants into the countryside. Imitating the style of popular broadsheets and almanacs, brochures like Les Merveilles de l'industrie exulted in the miracles of technology and tried to conjure them up for their readers.2 Advertisements plas-

Painted Promises: The Politics of Public Art in Late Nineteenth-Century France

Painted Promises: The Politics of Public Art in Late Nineteenth-Century France

Painted Promises: The Politics of Public Art in Late Nineteenth-Century France

During the Second Empire, according to this essay, prescriptive principles for mural painting served as a common aesthetic for artists, provided industrial workers with an appropriate vocabulary of form, and associated all aspects of production with the fine arts. By contrast, in a cultural turning point for public art, Third Republic policy associated public art projects with new marketing techniques of mass consumption that stressed individual subjectivity and feeling, personal fantasy and taste, and the immediacy of pure aesthetic effect.

L'œuf ou la poule. Science et techniques de l'électricité en France (1850-1900)

The doctoral thesis entitled Electrical Theories in France, 1870-1900 - «Mathematicians, physicians and engineers' contribution to Maxwell's theory », defended at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in September 1992, analyses the development of the "classical" theory of electromagnetism in France. It places all local and foreign research, articles and books - and notably Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism published in 1873 - in the French scientific, institutional and social context of the time. The aim is to take into account all the contributions and actors involved: mathematicians (theoretical physics did not yet exist), physicians and engineers (particularly specialists of the first electrical technique to be developed, the telegraph). This brief overview emphasizes the still pertinent question of relations between science and technology, and conceptions of "science" put into practice by the different actors in late-nineteenth century France.

City-Farm Wage Gaps in Late Nineteenth-Century France

Wage gaps between farm and city are used to assess whether industrialization in late nineteenth-century France was choked off by peasants' alleged reluctance to move. If industry suffered due to labor scarcity, wage gaps should have been large and rising. It turns out that the wage gap, when adjusted for costs of living and computed as an average of 20 regional wage gaps, was nil in 1852 and about 25 percent in 1892. Thus wage gaps were rising but were far smaller throughout the late nineteenth century than they were in England during similar stages of industrialization.

Catholics and Apprentices: An Example of Men's Philanthropy in Late Nineteenth-Century France

Journal Article Catholics and Apprentices: An Example of Men's Philanthropy in Late Nineteenth-Century France Get access Paul Seeley Paul Seeley Université Lyon II, 42 rue Bugeaud, 69006 Lyon, France and University of Michigan, Department of History, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1045 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Journal of Social History, Volume 25, Issue 3, Spring 1992, Pages 531–545, https://doi.org/10.1353/jsh/25.3.531 Published: 01 March 1992

The rhetoric of purity: essentialist theory and the advent of abstract painting

List of illustrations Introduction Acknowledgements Part I. Out of Plato's cave: 'abstraction' in late nineteenth-century France: 1. Gauguin and the art of pure memory 2. Serusier and Plato's poison Part II. The Mechanisms of Purity I: Mondrian Part III. The Mechanisms of Purity II: Kandinsky Part IV. Purity as Aesthetic Ideology: 1. Absolute autonomy 2. Universal exclusivity 3. Authoritarian freedom Postscript. Klee and the Interrogation of Purity Notes Selected bibliography Index.

Samuel F. B. Morse by Paul J. Staiti

602 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Led by the Goncourt brothers, the French elites sought an alterna­ tive to the spiritually deadening industrial culture in an imaginative revival of 18th-century crafts. Their interest was fueled by a pressing concern to create highly personalized, organically designed domestic spaces as a buffer from the nervous exhaustion and mechanized routine of urban industrial life. The decline of France’s status vis-à-vis other industrial countries and new diplomatic alliances led some members of government circles to identify French craft production as a national patrimony whose revitalization would be the country’s salvation. Unlike the rapidly industrializing societies of England, Germany, and the United States, craft production in France after the Revolution of 1789 had remained well developed and could boast a highly skilled work force supported by wealthy patrons and the state. Producers of luxury crafts were open to modernizing their products through the use of new technologies such as mechanical saws. A private organization, the Central Union of the Decorative Arts, helped shift the character of design by urging that women take the lead in luxury-craft production and consumption and called for a feminization ofartistic expression. Decorative-arts reform culminated at the 1900 Paris exposition with Siegfried Bing’s Pavilion of Art Nouveau. Silverman’s book is rich in ideas that help move the question of the relationship between art and technology from the periphery to the center of discussions about the role of the arts in industrializing society. One of the innovative subthemes is the relationship between new psychological concepts of the irrational and innovations in artistic practice and imagery. It can be argued that the systematic use of special graphic techniques to gain access to the subconscious belongs to a technological age whose ethos defines all human activity as fundamentally mechanistic and utilitarian. In the discussion of the moral dichotomy contemporaries established between an unnatural geometric industrial style and a “natural” craft style, Silverman points out that the latter was really artificial. Supporters of the new style viewed “making art” as a strategy for dealing with industrial life. Miriam R. Levin Dr. Levin is the author of Republican Art and Ideology in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1986) and teaches in the Program in the History of Technology and Science at Case Western Reserve University. Samuel F. B. Morse. By Paul J. Staiti. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Pp. xx + 298; illustrations, notes, appendixes, bibliog­ raphy, index. $50.00. On first encountering PaulJ. Staid’s monograph, SamuelF. B. Morse, the student of the history of technology in the United States may well TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 603 wonder whether he has wandered into the wrong library stall, for the greater part of Staiti’s study is concerned with Morse’s art. Yet, despite its aesthetic thrust, this book should interest scholars concerned with technology and culture. Satisfied that the history of the telegraph has been adequately handled by such scholars as Carleton Mabee (The American Leonardo: A Life of Samuel F. B. Morse [1943]) or Daniel J. Czitrom (Media and the American Mind: From Morse to McLuhan [ 1982]), Staid has instead devoted himself to the question: “in what ways, both spiritual and conceptual, did technology follow logically from paint­ ing?” (p. 222). His discussion of Morse’s art is designed to provide an aesthetic and intellectual context for Morse’s famous invention. Religion provides the intellectual framework for Morse’s artistic and technological concerns. Educated in a rigorous Calvinism by a father who was one of the main architects of the Second Great Awakening, Morse absorbed the evangelicalism of that moral crusade together with its elitism, nationalism, and empiricism. Painting, in Morse’s view, was “the agent of redemption, and society [was] its target” (p. 7). Art, life, and eventually invention emanated from “divine wisdom” (p. 222). The telegraph was “the most explicit demonstration of God’s benevolent design for the future of man­ kind,” and Morse was the “high priest” responsible for creating a machine that spoke “the mythological voice of Jehovah.” Art and technology were “Christian instruments” that redeemed and unified society by “carrying divine messages of ‘peace and love’ ” and has...

La Technologie, science humaine: Recherches d’histoire et d’ethnologie des techniques by André-Georges Haudricourt

TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 175 This collection of thirty-one previously published articles and an interview with the French anthropologist Georges Haudricourt is akin to a Pointillist painting. Each small piece has its own intrinsic value, but if one steps back mentally into the middle distance, the pieces coalesce into larger patterns of meaning. The book merits attention from historians of technology precisely because Haudricourt was an early advocate of the study of technology as part of the study of human culture. A student of the ethnopsychologist Marcel Mauss (nephew and disciple of Émile Durkheim), Haudricourt also had close ties with Marc Bloch and the Annales school of historical research and thus with some of the major 20th-century figures in French history and anthropology. His work, which draws on the Annaliste interest in mentalité as well as material life, is well represented in these small capsules dating from 1936 to 1978 and helped establish a method rooted in ethnography and linguistics for the study of technology. The book is organized into six sections, with an editor’s preface. The first section defines the field and method of Haudricourt’s inquiry, the others cover an impressive range of topics and cultures. There are articles on the origins of early-modern transportation vehicles and cultivated grains and on the relationship between habit­ ual gestures, the design of clothing, and the way heavy loads are carried. Haudricourt also wrote on how the knowledge of ironmaking passed from China to Europe in the Middle Ages and on the origins of animal fertilizer. Two facets of Haudricourt’s work are of special importance: his method and sources and his definition of technology. He was partic­ ularly interested in the archaeology and structure of language as a source of information about the development and spread of human culture. In this way, the analysis of terms for tools and techniques found in dictionaries and travelers’ diaries helped him establish the geographical and intellectual routes along which technologies moved from one culture to another, as well as the collective mentality of the societies and individuals that produced them. The conceptual frame­ work proposed by Haudricourt for the study of technology within preindustrial societies is broad and controversial. He defined technol­ ogy as a human science. Tools, techniques, and technical terms were closely interwoven with other forms of social and mental life. When studied in a rational and systematic way, they provided a deeper understanding of the development and spread of human civilization. The implications of his definitions and method were far-reaching, offering a foundation for the study of the history of technology as a discipline within the domain of the humanities and social sciences alongside other forms of culture. Although this foundation may be overly inclusive, the idea that technology is part of human culture still needs reiterating, as editor François Sagaut points out. He published this selection for the dual purpose of introducing Haudricourt’s work to a new generation of 176 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE scholars and promoting the study of technology as a valid academic enterprise. Hence, the term science humaine refers both to the fact that technology is the product of human knowledge and organized activity and that the study of technology should be an integral part of the university curriculum. While in France this position has political overtones, the argument is of some importance for historians of technology everywhere who are working to reform the curricula of their colleges and universities. I hope Haudricourt’s work will soon be translated into English so that a wider audience can examine it critically. If we cannot have an entire book, the essays in the section on methodology would be well worth the effort. Miriam R. Levin Dr. Levin is assistant professor of history in the Program in History of Technology and Science at Case Western Reserve University. She is the author of Republican Art and Ideology in Late Nineteenth Century France and is currently working with Pamela Mack on a history of science education in liberal arts colleges. Sciences et techniques en perspective. Vol. 15: La mutation de l'enseignement scientifique en France (1750—1810) et le rôle des...

Charcot and the idea of hysteria in the male: Gender, mental science, and medical diagnosis in late nineteenth-century France

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Technology and the City

Urban Americans depend upon technological systems which com pose infrastructure of modern city: waterworks, sewers, transit services and networks, large port and airport facilities, communications networks, and energy sup plies (1). The word infrastructure itself was coined in late nineteenth-century France to refer to logistical support systems such as supply depots and railroads upon which military increasingly depended. An army's infrastructure may be composed of temporary or portable facilities; in contrast, urban infrastructure is usually per manent, life-cycle of any given component extending from a couple of decades to a century. Perhaps because proper functioning of urban infrastruc ture is taken for granted, its role in urban life has been overlooked by historians. Twenty years ago, Roy Lubove pointed out that the exist ing body of urban history offers a surfeit of narratives about cities and an abun dance of tales about life in cities; but it largely fails to explain city building process in relation to technology and so cial organization (2). During past two decades, how ever, scholars have produced some studies focusing on relationship between city and technology. The interest of his torical scholars in this subject area has more to do with changes in field of history itself than with concern for contemporary problems of infrastructure renewal, an issue which receives public attention only after a major blackout or bridge failure, or when a bonding or tax proposal is on ballot. This essay will call attention to changing patterns of topi cal choice and interpretive emphasis in this literature (3).

Halbwachs and Durkheim: A Test of Two Theories of Suicide

The social integration hypothesis forms the basis of this study. It was first asserted by Durkheim in late nineteenth-century France and many of his assumptions are based on a social disorganizational model. This model tended to equate social change with the breakdown of social control and many of Durkheim's notions about anomie are derived from this view of industrial society. Halbwachs, on the other hand, proposed a social psychological theory of suicide. His model specifies more clearly the conditions under which lack of social integration may induce suicide. This study shows that among a population in transition, the Alaska Natives, the suicide rate was explained by the Halbwachsian model at least as well as the Durkheimian one and sometimes better. The Durkheimian model is shown to reflect a Cartesian dualism, which accounts only for that which is observable, thus making for biased studies of suicide. Moreover, psychopathological research confirms the Halbwachsian model. These findings restore the social isolation theory, once long neglected, to its rightful place among theories of suicide and opens up an important field for researchers seeking to understand high rates of suicide.