Laser Tissue Research Articles

Robotic Laser Tissue Soldering for Atraumatic Soft Tissue Fusion Guided by Fluorescent Nanothermometry.

Minimally invasive surgical techniques, including endoscopic and robotic procedures, continue to revolutionize patient care, for their ability to minimize surgical trauma, thus promoting faster recovery and reduced hospital stays. Yet, the suturing of soft tissues ensuring damage-free tissue bonding during these procedures remains challenging due to missing haptics and the fulcrum effect. Laser tissue soldering has potential in overcoming these issues, offering atraumatic seamless tissue fusion. To ensure the precision and safety of laser tissue soldering, the study introduces feedback-controlled fluorescent nanothermometry-guided laser tissue soldering using nanoparticle-protein solders within endoscopic and robotic contexts. Temperature-sensitive fluorescent nanoparticles embedded in the solder provide surgeons with immediate feedback on tissue temperatures during laser application, all while within the confines of minimally invasive (robotic) surgical setups. By integrating fluorescent nanothermometry-guided laser tissue surgery into endoscopic and robotic surgery, the study paves the way for a new approach for safe and atraumatic soft tissue joining, especially in regions where traditional suturing is unfeasible.

Living-Skin Detection Based on Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Structured Light Pattern.

Living-skin detection is an important step for imaging photoplethysmography and biometric anti-spoofing. In this paper, we propose a new approach that exploits spatio-temporal characteristics of structured light patterns projected on the skin surface for living-skin detection. We observed that due to the interactions between laser photons and tissues inside a multi-layer skin structure, the frequency-domain sharpness feature of laser spots on skin and non-skin surfaces exhibits clear difference. Additionally, the subtle physiological motion of living-skin causes laser interference, leading to brightness fluctuations of laser spots projected on the skin surface. Based on these two observations, we designed a new living-skin detection algorithm to distinguish skin from non-skin using spatio-temporal features of structured laser spots. Experiments in the dark chamber and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) demonstrated that the proposed setup and method performed well, achieving a precision of 85.32%, recall of 83.87%, and F1-score of 83.03% averaged over these two scenes. Compared to the approach that only leverages the property of multilayer skin structure, the hybrid approach obtains an averaged improvement of 8.18% in precision, 3.93% in recall, and 8.64% in F1-score. These results validate the efficacy of using frequency domain sharpness and brightness fluctuations to augment the features of living-skin tissues irradiated by structured light, providing a solid basis for structured light based physiological imaging.

Enhanced wound closure in rabbit oral vestibule: a comparative analysis of suturing and laser tissue soldering

This study investigates the comparative effectiveness of laser soldering technique and conventional suturing methods for wound closure in rabbits. Over a 60-day post-operative period, scar formation and healing were monitored, with a particular focus on scar characteristics such as width, height, and overall appearance. Results indicate that the laser group exhibited improved scar characteristics, especially in the early stages (first and third days) of healing. By the seventh day, both groups demonstrated similar scar conditions, though the laser group showed a slightly faster recovery trajectory, with marginally lower scar height observed on the 21st and 60th days. While the laser technique showed some advantages in minimizing short-term complications, the long-term outcomes between the two methods were largely comparable. These findings suggest that the laser soldering method may offer some benefits over traditional suturing, particularly in the early stages of healing, but further research is needed to fully assess its clinical potential.

Morphological Characterization of Tissue Destruction According to the Distance Between Holmium:YAG Laser Tip and Tissue Surface.

Little is known about the soft tissue destruction by holmium laser clinically used for holmium laser enucleation of the prostate (HoLEP), subject to the distance between the laser fiber tip and the tissue surface. We aimed to investigate the impact of the distance between the laser fiber tip and the phantom surface (DLP) on a soft tissue phantom (STP) in relation to the surgical modes of HoLEP. STP responses to the laser pulses produced by a commercial holmium:yttrium aluminum garnet (Holmium:YAG) laser at an output setting 2 J were observed at different values of the DLP (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 mm) to look at (1) the single laser pulse-induced cavitation bubble and its penetration into the STP, (2) the STP destruction by a single pulse, (3) the STP destruction by 60 pulses repeated at 12 Hz, and (4) the thermal effect by the multiple pulses visualized on a thermosensitive bovine serum albumin (BSA) STP. We observed that the laser pulse produced a heated gas bubble in water centered at the laser fiber tip. The bubble shape depended on the DLP. The bubble completely penetrated into the STP at the DLP of 0 mm and the penetration decreased with the DLP. The size of the destruction of the STP by the laser pulses was shown to decrease as the DLP increased. Test with the BSA STP showed that, at the DLP of 3 mm, the destruction became insignificant while the thermal effects were still effective. We illustrated that soft tissue destruction by the Holmium:YAG laser is associated with cavitation effects. We provide for the first time experimental evidence for various surgical modes in HoLEP such as incision and hemostasis in relation to the DLP.

Impact of Negative Pressure Wound Therapy on Perfusion Dynamics in Free Latissimus Dorsi Muscle Flaps.

Background: Free muscle flaps can develop significant postoperative edema and wound exudation, thereby increasing interstitial pressure and potentially compromising microcirculation. While concerns exist regarding negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) to compress free flaps and hinder monitoring, recent studies have indicated a reduction in edema and an increase in blood flow. Objective: To compare microcirculation in free latissimus dorsi muscle (LDM) flaps dressed with and without NPWT. Methods: This retrospective cohort study analyzed prospectively collected data of patients who received free LDM flap reconstruction. Patients were separated into two groups according to management with or without NPWT. Microcirculation was evaluated continuously for up to 72 h utilizing laser doppler flowmetry and tissue spectrometry. Results: In total, n = 61 patients (26 females, 35 males) with an average age of 56.90 (17.4) years were included. NPWT was applied in 12 patients, while a regular cotton dressing was used in 49 patients. Overall, no significant differences in the number of minor and major complications were observed between groups. Both groups showed an increase in microvascular flow over the investigated time period. The flow showed higher absolute values in the NPWT group, reaching statistical significance at 12 h post-anastomosis, p = 0.038. There was a tendency for lower rHb values in the NPWT group, without reaching statistical significance. Conclusions: The presented study confirms the increase in microvascular flow after NPWT application. Whilst ensuring continuous free flap monitoring utilizing laser doppler flowmetry and spectrometry, the data further support the safety of NPWT application without risking vascular compromise due to external compression.

Numerical simulation of the thermo-mechanical coupling behavior of skin tissue exposed to repetitive pulse laser irradiation

A thorough understanding of the thermo-mechanical coupling behavior during the interaction between pulsed laser and skin tissue is a prerequisite for successful application of pulsed laser technology in the treatment of various skin diseases and injuries. Taking into account the complex physiological structure of skin tissue, a theoretical model is established to characterize the thermo-mechanical response of multi-layer skin tissue with variable physical properties, in which the non-linear governing equations of bio-thermo-mechanics with dual-phase lag mechanism and Henrique burn equation are involved. The finite difference method was employed to obtain the time-space distribution of skin temperature, displacement and stress under repeated pulse laser action, and the incidental thermal damage was further evaluated on this basis. The numerical results stated that: i) repeated pulse laser can significant reduce the peak temperature of skin tissue and further reduce or even eliminate thermal damage under the premise of required energy threshold, ii) the thermo-mechanical coupling response and potential thermal damage will be inhibited when the temperature dependence of physical parameter is considered, in which the thermal stress is more sensitive to the temperature dependence than others, iii) the thermal damage is more sensitive to the input parameters than that of thermo-mechanical response, and the burn time can be effectively delayed or even avoided for appropriate input options.

Bio-thermal non-equilibrium dynamics and thermal damage in biological tissues induced by multiple time pulse-laser irradiations

BackgroundLaser therapy offers precise medical treatment by directing focused light beams to specific areas without harming surrounding tissue. This precision is particularly valuable in tissue treatment, including cancer therapy, where minimizing collateral damage is critical. The current study focuses on bio-thermal dynamics and thermal damage in biological tissues induced by multiple pulse-laser irradiations. ModelThe Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium (LTNE) bio-heat Transfer model with porosity and dual lag effects is developed to investigate the thermal behavior in tissues. The model contains partial differential equations that is solved through numerical method. ResultsObtained results show temperature variations and thermal damage in tissues, influenced by parameters such as laser intensity, incident duration, and tissue porosity. Higher intensity of laser and extended laser durations increase the temperature distribution and thermal damage. Porosity inversely affects temperature distribution, with large values of porosity leading to decreased distribution. NoveltyThis study introduces the application of multi-time lasers induced on tissue for the therapies, a novel approach that has not been previously explored in the literature.

Evaluation of peri-implant perfusion in patients who underwent avascular augmentation or microvascular reconstruction using laser Doppler flowmetry and tissue spectrophotometry: a prospective comparative clinical study

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to evaluate the peri-implant perfusion, such as oxygen saturation, the relative amount of hemoglobin, and blood flow, in implants placed in pristine bone and avascular and microvascular grafts using a non-invasive measurement method.Materials and methodsA total of 58 patients with 241 implants were included. Among them, 106 implants were based in native bone (group I), 75 implants were inserted into avascular bone grafts (group II), and 60 implants were placed in microvascular bone grafts (group III). Gingival perfusion was measured using laser Doppler flowmetry and tissue spectrophotometry (LDF-TS). Implants with signs of gingival inflammation were excluded to analyze healthy implant perfusion in different bony envelopes.ResultsThe mean values for oxygen saturation, relative hemoglobin levels, and blood flow did not differ significantly between the groups (p = 0.404, p = 0.081, and p = 0.291, respectively). There was no significant difference in perfusion between implants that were surrounded by mucosa and implants based within cutaneous transplants (p = 0.456; p = 0.628, and p = 0.091, respectively).ConclusionNo differences in perfusion were found between implants inserted into native bone and implants involving bone or soft tissue augmentation. However, implants based in avascular and microvascular transplants showed higher rates of peri-implant inflammation.Clinical relevancePeri-implant perfusion seems to be comparable for all implants after they heal, irrespective of their bony surroundings. Although perfusion does not differ significantly, other factors may make implants in avascular and microvascular transplants vulnerable to peri-implant inflammation.

New rat model of spinal cord infarction with long-lasting functional disabilities generated by intraspinal injection of endothelin-1

BackgroundThe current method for generating an animal model of spinal cord (SC) infarction is highly invasive and permits only short-term observation, typically limited to 28 days.ObjectiveWe aimed to establish a...

Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of the Effect of Vaporization Heat on the Interaction between Laser and Biological Tissue

A theoretical model, based on the classical Pennes’ bioheat theory, incorporating various boundary conditions, was established and compared to analyze the influence of the latent heat of vaporization via simulation. The aim was to elucidate the extent of its influence. The thermal damage rate, governed by the vaporization heat of biological tissue, is introduced as a key factor. Functional relationships between temperature and incident laser power, spatial position, and time are derived from the classical Pennes’ bioheat equation. According to the theoretical model, numerical simulations and experimental validations are conducted using Comsol Multiphysics 6.0, considering the tissue latent heat of vaporization. The model incorporating the latent heat of vaporization proved more suitable for analyzing the interactions between laser and biological tissue, evident from the degree of fit between simulated and experimental data. The minimum deviations between theoretical and experimental observations were determined to be 2.43% and 5.11% in temperature and thermal damage, respectively. Furthermore, this model can be extended to facilitate the theoretical analysis of the impact of vaporization heat from different primary tissue components on laser-tissue interaction.

Impact of SWCNTs and CMCS on efficacy of anastomosis and optical properties in vivo during laser biological tissue soldering

In order to improve the mechanical properties of skin tissue incision, enhance laser absorption efficiency, further shorten healing time and reduce skin fibrosis tendency, this study investigated the effects of CMCS or SWCNT combined with 25 % BSA and 0.4 % ICG on laser tissue welding. Nd:YAG pulsed laser was used for wound closure test on live rats with an energy density of 67.3 J/cm2 and linear scanning of skin incisions. The effects of different types and concentrations of biological dressings on wound closure were tested at different sites. The results showed that biocompatible dressings containing CMCS and SWCNTs had a significant effect in promoting wound healing after laser welding. After laser welding, the tensile strength of the control group without CMCS or SWCNTs was only between 6.5 and 9.8 N/cm2, while that with CMCS reached as high as 26.5 N/cm2. Macroscopic morphology analysis showed that components such as CMCS and SWCNTs could significantly shorten healing time from 14 days to 9–10 days. Optical performance tests demonstrated that a combination of 5 %CMCS and 4 %SWCNTs can significantly increase skin's absorption coefficient for laser photons up to7-8 Lg-1cm−1 and reduce photon diffuse reflectance. HE and Masson staining revealed that when internalized by dressing containing 0.4 %SWCNTs, nanocarbon particles promoted collagen skeleton regeneration but increased fibrosis tendency after 14 days post-laser welding, resulting in unfavorable long-term healing outcomes. However, the combination of CMSC with SWCNTs can significantly improve incision mechanical properties, laser photon absorption rate, and shorten healing time while reducing scar proliferation tendencies.

Laser tissue welding by using collagen excitation at a 1,720 nm near-infrared optical window III.

Laser tissue welding (LTW) is a method of fusing incised tissues together. LTW has the potential to revolutionize plastic surgery and wound healing techniques by its ability to produce watertight, scarless seals with minimal foreign body reaction. While using thermal mechanisms to achieve LTW, energy from the incident laser is absorbed by water in the tissue. As the water temperature increases, partial denaturing of the collagen triple helix briefly occurs, which is quickly followed by renaturation of collagen as the tissue cools, thus providing a watertight seal. This research study investigates the efficacy of direct collagen excitation at 1,720nm to accomplish LTW. This wavelength falls within the near-infrared (NIR) optical window III. The tensile strengths of pig skin that have been welded with NIR continuous-wave (CW) diode lasers at 1,455nm, which promote thermal mechanisms of tissue welding, and 1,720nm wavelengths, are compared. Near-infrared lasers tuned to 1,455 and 1,720nm were used to weld incised pieces of porcine skin together without extrinsic solders or dyes. The tensile force of the welded tissues was measured using a digital force gauge. The average tensile force of the welded pig skin using the 1,720nm laser was approximately four times greater than that using the CW 1,455nm laser, suggesting that LTW accomplished through direct collagen excitation in the NIR optical window III provides greater tensile strengths.

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS FOR EXUDATIVE RETINAL DETACHMENT FOLLOWING LASER PHOTOCOAGULATION FOR RETINOPATHY OF PREMATURITY.

Exudative retinal detachment (ERD) may result from laser photocoagulation for retinopathy of prematurity. Although risk factors have been hypothesized from case reports, comparative studies have not been reported. We sought to evaluate risk factors for ERD following laser, comparing affected and unaffected infants. Retrospective cohort study of infants undergoing retinopathy of prematurity laser at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia over 6 years. All received near-confluent laser of avascular retina. Demographic, medical, and procedural risk factors for ERD were evaluated in univariate analysis because of the rarity of ERD. Among 149 lasered infants, 6 infants (4%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5%-8.6%) developed ERD. Race was a significant risk factor ( P = 0.01). Among 71 African American or Hispanic infants, 6 (8.5%, 95% CI 3.2%-17.5%) developed ERD. Among 78 non-African American or Hispanic infants, 0 (0%, 95% CI 0%-4.6%) developed ERD. There were no significant differences in the other studied factors. Exudative retinal detachment was uncommon (4%) following retinopathy of prematurity laser. Despite so few cases, darker pigmented race with likely increased pigmented fundi was significantly associated with an increased ERD risk. Further study may reveal whether increased choroidal pigment causes greater laser tissue damage or makes it difficult to discern the ora, resulting in inadvertent lasering of the ciliary body, leading to ERD.

Evaluation of perfusion parameters of gingival inflammation using laser Doppler flowmetry and tissue spectrophotometry– a prospective comparative clinical study

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to determine the values of different perfusion parameters- such as oxygen saturation, the relative amount of hemoglobin, and blood flow- in healthy subjects compared to patients with gingivitis as a non-invasive measurement method.MethodsA total of 114 subjects were enrolled in this study and separated into subjects with gingivitis (50) and without gingivitis (64) based on clinical examination. Gingival perfusion was measured at 22 points in the maxilla and mandible using laser Doppler flowmetry and tissue spectrophotometry (LDF-TS) with the “oxygen to see” device. All patients underwent measurement of gingival perfusion, followed by the clinical evaluation (measurement of probing depths, evaluation of bleeding on probing, plaque level, and biotype). Perfusion parameters were compared between the groups, associations between the non-invasive and clinical measurements were analyzed, and theoretical optimal cut-off values for predicting gingivitis were calculated with receiver operating characteristics.ResultsThe mean oxygen saturation, mean relative amount of hemoglobin, and mean blood flow all significantly differed between the groups with and without gingivitis (p = 0.005, p < 0.001, and p < 0.001, respectively). The cut-off value for predicting gingivitis was > 40 AU (p < 0.001; sensitivity 0.90, specificity 0.67).ConclusionsAs a non-invasive method, LDF-TS can help determine gingival hyperemia. Flow values above 40 AU indicate a higher risk of hyperemia, which can be associated with inflammation. The LDF-TS method can be used for the objective evaluation of perfusion parameters during routine examinations and can signal the progression of hyperperfusion before any change in clinical parameters is observed.Trial registrationAll procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the institutional Clinical Research Ethics Committee (Ethik-Kommission der Medizinischen Fakultät der RWTH Aachen, Decision Number 286/20) and retrospectively registered by the German Clinical Trials Register (File Number DRKS00024048, registered on the 15th of October 2021).

Combining LAESI Imaging and Tissue Spray Ionization Mass Spectrometry To Unveil Pesticides Contaminants in Fruits.

There is an increasing need for developing a strategy to analyze the penetration of pesticides in cultures during postharvest control with minimal or no sample preparation. This study explores the combined use of laser ablation electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (LAESI imaging) and tissue spray ionization mass spectrometry (TSI-MS) to investigate the penetration of thiabendazole (TBZ) in fruits, simulating a postharvest procedure. Slices of guava and apple were prepared, and an infrared laser beam was used, resulting in the ablation of TBZ directly ionized by electrospray and analyzed by mass spectrometry. The experiments were conducted for 5 days of fruit storage after TBZ administration to simulate a postharvest treatment. During postharvest treatment, TBZ is applied directly to the fruit peel after harvesting. Consequently, TBZ residues may remain on the peel if the consumer does not wash the fruit properly before its consumption. To evaluate the effectiveness of household washing procedures, TSI-MS was employed as a rapid and straightforward technique to monitor the remaining amount of TBZ in guava and apple peels following fruit washing. This study highlights the advantages of LAESI imaging for evaluating TBZ penetration in fruits. Moreover, the powerful capabilities of TSI-MS are demonstrated in monitoring and estimating TBZ residues after pesticide application, enabling the comprehensive unveiling of pesticide contaminants in fruits.

Experimental research on mechanism of collagen remodeling and excellent properties of skin incisions under dual beam laser welding

For problems of water loss caused by rapid energy dissipation and insufficient depth of heat-affected zone (HAZ) during skin welding with single laser beam. A dual beam 1064 nm semiconductor laser was used to weld incisions on the back of porcine skin, and the dual beam laser was consisted of preliminary beam and the secondary beam. The main beam is vertically incident, and the secondary beam is deflected by 30° on a vertical basis. In this study, there are three types of energy ratios of dual beam laser, which are 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1. From 77.22 J/cm2 to 135.4 J/cm2 stepped increasing energy density, the fusion performances of skin incisions after welding were comprehensively analyzed and characterized. Using Matlab and high-precision dynamometer to evaluate thermal denaturation and biomechanical properties, combined with H&E staining, Masson and Sirius red staining to analyze the microstructure characteristics, collagen deposition behavior and distribution around the HAZ of incisions after welding. The results showed that when the energy density was 102.96 J/cm2, at the energy ratio of 1:1, the collagen network structure was dense, collagen deposition was 48 %, thermal damage value was 0.39, and the immediate tensile strength was 206.3 N/cm2, which was far above the standard of wound healing performances after surgical treatment, and the thermal denaturation was controlled at a low level, realizing the reconstruction of collagen after fracture, achieving the optimal dual-beam laser welding performance, in vivo test results found that above laser type and energy ratio can reduce healing cycle into 7 days, which provided important references for later study on laser tissue welding technology.

Evaluation of fusion performances of skin wound incisions under different defocus amounts in laser tissue welding

Evaluation of fusion performances of skin wound incisions under different defocus amounts in laser tissue welding

Management of recurrent aphthous ulcers with therapeutic Nd:YAG laser, using two different methods.

Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) has been applied for the management of craniomaxillofacial disorders, including intraoral wounds, as well as recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS) lesions. However, the proper combination of laser features and tissue characteristics remains the major challenge in the realm of photobiomodulation (PBM). The aim of the present study was to assess the feasibility of neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser therapy in treating RAS lesions, and to compare 2 techniques, different with regard to the distance between the fiber tip and the ulcer. A total of 138 patients (94 males and 44 females) with untreated RAS were divided into 3 groups: focused laser (energy density: 48 J/cm2; power density: 0.797 W/cm2; spot size: 0.1256 cm2); defocused laser (energy density: 21 J/cm2; power density: 0.354 W/cm2; spot size: 0.2826 cm2); and placebo. In the focused group, laser irradiation was performed with the laser tip kept 1 mm away from the lesion. Acrylic cylinders were prepared to precisely fit the handpiece tip and hold it in the proper position. In the defocused group, acrylic cylinders were prepared to set the laser tip 6 mm away from the lesion to obtain defocused irradiation. Finally, in the placebo group, a routine laser therapy procedure was carried out with a helium-neon (He-Ne) red light laser. The lesion size, and pain intensity and duration were recorded. Photobiomodulation showed a significantly more efficient pain relief as compared to the placebo group (p < 0.001) and also significantly better results in decreasing pain duration (p < 0.001). Besides, the diameter of the lesions in the exposed cases decreased during the 3 consecutive days of the study, while an increase in the diameter of the lesions was noticed in the placebo group. The Nd:YAG laser therapy, with the conditions and adjustments of the present study, may be successfully applied to manage RAS lesions, using either focused and defocused scanning techniques.

Nanothermometry-Enabled Intelligent Laser Tissue Soldering.

While often life-saving, surgical resectioning of diseased tissues puts patients at risk for post-operative complications. Sutures and staples are well-accepted and routinely used to reconnect tissues, however, their mechanical mismatch with biological soft tissue and invasiveness contribute to wound healing complications, infections, and post-operative fluid leakage. In principle, laser tissue soldering offers an attractive, minimally-invasive alternative for seamless soft tissue fusion. However, despite encouraging experimental observations, including accelerated healing and lowered infection risk, critical issues related to temperature monitoring and control during soldering and associated complications have prevented their clinical exploitation to date. Here, intelligent laser tissue soldering (iSoldering) with integrated nanothermometry is introduced as a promising yet unexplored approach to overcome the critical shortcomings of laser tissue soldering. It demonstrates that adding thermoplasmonic and nanothermometry nanoparticles to proteinaceous solders enables heat confinement and non-invasive temperature monitoring and control, offering a route to high-performance, leak-tight tissue sealing even at deep tissue sites. The resulting tissue seals exhibit excellent mechanical properties and resistance to chemically-aggressive digestive fluids, including gastrointestinal juice. The iSolder can be readily cut and shaped by surgeons to optimally fit the tissue defect and can even be applied using infrared light from a medically approved light source, hence fulfilling key prerequisites for application in the operating theatre. Overall, iSoldering enables reproducible and well-controlled high-performance tissue sealing, offering new prospects for its clinical exploitation in diverse fields ranging from cardiovascular to visceral and plastic surgery.

Laser–tissue interaction simulation considering skin-specific data to predict photothermal damage lesions during laser irradiation

Abstract This study aimed to develop a simulation model that accounts for skin-specific properties in order to predict photothermal damage during skin laser treatment. To construct a computational model, surface geometry information was obtained from an optical coherence tomography image, and the absorption coefficient of the skin was determined through spectrophotometry. The distribution of the internal light dose inside the skin medium was calculated using the light propagation model based on the Monte Carlo method. The photothermal response due to the absorption of laser light was modeled by a finite difference time domain model to solve the bio-heat transfer equation. The predicted depth and area of the damaged lesions from the simulation model were compared to those measured in ex vivo porcine skin. The present simulation model gave acceptable predictions with differences of approximately ∼10% in both depth and area.