Deep Penetration Laser Welding Research Articles

Research on the behavior of molten pool in laser deep-penetration welding

Research on the behavior of molten pool in laser deep-penetration welding

Machine learning-based in-process monitoring for laser deep penetration welding: A survey

In-process monitoring (IPM) of laser deep penetration welding (LDPW) has witnessed a rapid growth in approaches that embrace machine learning algorithms, utilizing raw sensor input to generate various weld quality evaluations, instead of concentrating on thermomechanical modeling that is hypotheses-driven and hence biased by it. Benefitting from the capability to unravel hidden interactions in the complex laser welding process, numerous data-driven IPM methods have been proposed to address different problems in this area. In this survey, we present a comprehensive analysis of both classical and recent studies, covering the unique physical mechanisms, sensing techniques, methodologies, strengths, and limitations of machine learning-based IPM-LDPW systems. We delve into several critical tasks, including mechanical performance prediction, weld penetration estimation, and weld defects detection. Meanwhile, we explore the latest developments in deep learning and how to incorporate these techniques into IPM systems for LDPW. To inspire future research, we outline unresolved challenges and explore potential opportunities and new perspectives for addressing these challenges.

Identifying the direction of weld path deviations in laser deep penetration welding of hidden T-joints by means of OCT

Identifying the direction of weld path deviations in laser deep penetration welding of hidden T-joints by means of OCT

OCT monitoring data processing method of laser deep penetration welding based on HDBSCAN

To address the challenge of low accuracy in the measurement of laser deep penetration welding depth, this study introduces optical coherence tomography (OCT) technology for the direct measurement of this parameter, which is designed to enable real-time measurement and the accurate acquisition of depth information. This study has developed a laser welding depth inspection system that integrates Spectral-Domain OCT (SD-OCT), utilizing 304 stainless steel as the test material for inspecting laser deep penetration welding. A comparative analysis evaluated the impact of Hierarchical Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (HDBSCAN), Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN), and K-means clustering (K-mean) on the clustering of OCT raw data, in addition to the use of percentile filters combined with the exponential moving average method for extracting the depth-of-melt curve. The depth-of-melt curve, obtained via the HDBSCAN algorithm, more accurately reflects the actual depth curve, with an average error remaining below 5%. This error rate is 46% lower than that of DBSCAN and 42% lower than that of K-mean. The results of the experiments with continuously varying process parameters show that a high degree of accuracy can be demonstrated even when the welding process parameters are continuously varied. Experimental results indicate that the combination of the HDBSCAN algorithm with percentile filtering and the exponential moving average method significantly enhances the recognition accuracy of the deep penetration laser welding depth curve. This method provides more precise feature parameters for the real-time detection and identification of defects in deep penetration laser welding, thereby offering strong support for optimizing and controlling the laser welding process.

Publisher Correction: Process comparison of laser deep penetration welding in pure nickel using blue and infrared wavelengths

Publisher Correction: Process comparison of laser deep penetration welding in pure nickel using blue and infrared wavelengths

Supercritical melt flow in high-speed laser welding and its interdependence with the geometry of the keyhole and the melt pool

The advent of undercuts and humping limits the applicable speed of deep-penetration laser welding. Recent findings additionally show that a significant change of the keyhole’s shape is associated with the occurrence of undercuts. Considering that undercuts and humping are melt flow–induced defects, this leads to the question of how the geometry of the keyhole and the melt pool influence the melt flow and vice versa. In this work, the Froude number was used to characterize the melt flow around a keyhole. X-ray images of the keyhole and cross-sections of the weld were therefore used to determine the geometrical boundaries of the melt flow, to estimate the average melt velocity around the keyhole, and finally determine its Froude number. The flow around a cylindrically shaped keyhole was found to always be subcritical, whereas supercritical melt flow was observed around the elongated keyholes that are formed at higher welding speed. The findings may be interpreted in the sense that the elongation of the keyhole is a consequence of a supercritical stream of the melt flowing underneath and around the keyhole. This perception is consistent with the long-known experience that humping may be avoided by reducing the flow speed of the melt by widening the melt pool surrounding the keyhole (e.g., by means of beam shaping) and suggest a new explanation for the elongation of the keyhole at increased welding speed.

Process comparison of laser deep penetration welding in pure nickel using blue and infrared wavelengths

AbstractLaser sources with wavelengths in the visible blue spectrum are suitable for heat conduction mode welding of materials like copper and nickel due to the significantly increased Fresnel absorption compared to infrared laser radiation. Recently, blue laser sources with 445 nm wavelength have become available with sufficient power and beam parameters to exceed the intensity threshold for laser deep penetration welding. In laser beam deep penetration welding, the total absorption is significantly increased due to the multiple reflections in the keyhole compared to heat conduction mode welding. However, since the absorbed energy per reflection inside the keyhole is wavelength-dependent, it can be hypothesized that the choice of laser wavelength causes changes in the local energy distribution inside the keyhole, changing the keyhole dynamics. To investigate this, laser beam deep penetration welding experiments were carried out on 2.4068 pure nickel using an infrared laser source and a blue laser source with comparable beam properties. The experiments were monitored and compared by a multi-sensor setup and metallographic analyses. This setup included measurements of airborne acoustic emissions and two high-speed video cameras for spatter tracking and tracking of the keyhole area. The use of a blue laser beam led to a lower spatter quantity, an increase of porosity and a significant change of acoustic emissions, proving the hypothesis for pure nickel.

Inline detection of process anomalies during laser deep penetration welding of hidden T-joints

Laser deep penetration welding processes are sensitive towards contaminations inside of the process zone. Automized production facilities report the risk of residual packaging material within the process zone to result in seam defects. These can impair the mechanical properties of the seam and raise the demand for post-process quality control. In-line process monitoring is a promising tool to detect process anomalies correlated to such defects and potentially reduce the demand for time-consuming post-process control. This study investigates the influence of polystyrene particles, a common packaging material, enclosed in the gap of hidden T-joints onto the process dynamics. For process monitoring optical coherence tomography and airborne sound measurement were employed. The provoked process anomalies resulted in increased porosities and significant signal changes of the OCT and airborne sound measurements. This proves the in-line detection capability of process anomalies which occur due to polystyrene particles in joint gaps of hidden T-joints.

Application of output constraints to a physics-informed hybrid model for the prediction of the threshold of deep-penetration laser welding

Physics-informed hybrid models, the combination of physics and machine learning, have already shown considerable benefits for quantitative predictions of process constraints, such as the threshold of deep-penetration laser welding. However, despite the improved prediction accuracy and extrapolation capability of such models, there can still be cases where the predictions of the model, including the confidence region, result in values that are not consistent with physical boundary conditions. Therefore, this paper presents the application of additional output constraints to a physics-informed hybrid model to further improve the compliance of the model with physics. Gaussian processes are used for the machine learning model and output warping is used to incorporate the output constraints directly into the model. The approach is demonstrated at the example of a hybrid model for the prediction of the threshold of deep-penetration laser welding.

Statistical analysis of plasma thermodynamic behavior based on laser deep penetration welding of TC4 titanium alloy

The laser-induced plasma is an important characteristic that affects the welding process and weld quality. The plasma plume erupting velocity and temperature are the two critical parameters of plasma thermodynamic behavior. In this paper, a kind of passive dual-probe device was proposed to measure the erupting velocity of the plasma plume, and the feasibility of the method was demonstrated. The temperature distribution of the plasma plume was also investigated. The experimental results showed that for the reason of the state of the keyhole was different, the MPV at the beginning of the laser pulse period increased from 14 m/s to 26 m/s with the peak power increased from 1980 W to 2520 and from 4 m/s to 25 m/s with the peak power increased from 1200 W to 1500 in the pulse laser welding process, while the MPV decreased from 20 m/s to 11 m/s with the laser power increase from 1200 W to 1500 W in the continuous laser welding process. The MPT decreased with the increase of height in pulse laser welding process; but in the continuous laser welding process, the plasma plume was heated by absorbing the laser energy and a hot core occurred in the plasma plume, the MPT first increased and then decreased with the increase of probe height.

Inhomogeneous microstructure distribution and its formation mechanism in deep penetration laser welding of medium-thick aluminum-lithium alloy plates

Inhomogeneous microstructure distribution and its formation mechanism in deep penetration laser welding of medium-thick aluminum-lithium alloy plates

Frontal pyrometric snapshot measurements of the keyhole wall temperature in laser welding of pure aluminium

In deep penetration laser welding, the quality of the weld seam is strongly correlated with the process dynamics. Pronounced dynamics of the melt pool and the keyhole cause defects like pores and blow-outs which negatively affect the mechanical properties of the seam. The process dynamics are primarily governed by the fluctuations of the keyhole shape. Therefore, in order to avoid the occurrence of defects in the weld seam, it is necessary to gain control over the keyhole stability by understanding the underlying physical processes that contribute to its dynamics. Besides the intensity distribution of the laser beam on the keyhole walls, the keyhole wall temperature is a crucial influencing factor when it comes to the assessment of the local metal evaporation rate and the induced local recoil pressure acting on the keyhole wall. Using small high-melting tantalum probes as measuring channels, temperatures in the vicinity of the Knudsen layer at the keyhole front wall were measured at different depths below the sample surface by means of high-speed pyrometry. For this purpose, bead on plate welding was conducted at low process velocities in the Rosenthal regime using pure aluminium (EN AW-1050A) as substrate material. It is shown for different laser powers and process velocities that the melt temperature in the vicinity of the keyhole wall lies in the range of 3000 K ± 400 K, therefore intermittently exceeding the vaporisation temperature of the substrate material. Significant correlations between the keyhole wall temperature and the laser power as well as the measuring depth could not be identified.

Microstructural Inhomogeneity in the Fusion Zone of Laser Welds.

This paper investigated evolutions of α-Al sub-grains' morphology and crystalline orientation in the fusion zone during laser welding of 2A12 aluminum alloys. Based on this, a new method for assessing the weldability of materials was proposed. In laser deep-penetration welding, in addition to the conventional columnar and equiaxed dendrites, there also exhibited a corrugated structure with several 'fine-coarse-fine' transformations. In such regions, an abnormal α-Al coarsening phenomenon was encountered, with a more dispersed crystalline orientation arrangement and a decreased maximum pole density value. Particularly, structural alterations appeared more frequently in the weld bottom than the top. The above results indicated that the laser-induced keyhole presented a continually fluctuating state. Under such a condition, the solid-liquid transformation exhibited an unstable solidification front, a fluctuant undercooling, and a variational solidification rate. Meanwhile, the welding quality of this material is in a critical state to generate pores. Therefore, the appearance and relevant number of corrugated regions can be considered as a new way for judging the weldability, which will help to narrow the processing window with better welding stability.

Integrated modeling of cracking during deep penetration laser welding of nickel alloys

During deep penetration laser welding of nickel alloys, interactions between composition and processing conditions can lead to the formation of defects. Inconel 740H, for example, has demonstrated a susceptibility to horizontal fusion zone cracking at locations between 70% and 80% of the weld depth during laser welding at powers above 5 kW. Coupling three-dimensional heat transfer, fluid flow, and stress modeling tools allowed that both the strain rate and stress normal to the solidification direction to be calculated. In the Inconel 740H welds, cracks formed at locations where the strain rate and stress simultaneously reached critical levels. No cracking was observed in the Inconel 690 welds, since the strain rate and stress did not simultaneously reach these critical levels.

Laser Welding of Fiber and Quartz Glass Ferrule.

Optical fiber sensors fabricated by bonding have several limitations. To address these limitations, a CO2 laser welding process for an optical fiber and quartz glass ferrule is proposed in this study. A deep penetration welding method with optimal penetration (penetrating the base material only) is presented to weld a workpiece according to the requirements of the optical fiber light transmission, size characteristics of the optical fiber, and the keyhole effect of the deep penetration laser welding. Moreover, the influence of laser action time on the keyhole penetration is studied. Finally, laser welding is performed with a frequency of 24 kHz, power of 60 W, and duty cycle of 80% for 0.9 s. Subsequently, the optical fiber is subjected to out-of-focus annealing (0.83 mm, 20% duty cycle). The results show that deep penetration welding produces a perfect welding spot and has good quality; the hole generated from deep penetration welding has a smooth surface; the fiber can bear a maximum tensile force of 1.766 N. The performance of the optical fiber sensor is stable, and the maximum pressure deviation corresponding to the cavity length fluctuation is about 7.2 Pa. Additionally, the linear correlation coefficient R of the sensor is 0.99998.

Modelling and Optimization of Continual Laser Joining Processes for Silicon Aluminum Alloy in Microwave Devices

Due to its higher energy and smaller heating area, laser joining technology is widely used in aluminum alloy welding and other industrial fields, which meets the solder sealing requirements for electronic packaging. According to experiments, cracks were prone to occur at the corners and spot-welding positions near the weld. In this paper, the depth and width of the melt pool were measured experimentally, and the results were used to calibrate and validate the heat source model. An empirical relationship between heat source parameters and melt pool morphology is presented. The heat source model of laser deep penetration welding was established under the same experimental conditions. And the results were in agreement with the experimental results. The finite element method was used to numerically simulate the welding process of a 50%SiAl shell and a 27%SiAl cover plate. The effects of different spot-welding sequences and numbers on the residual stress and cracking possibility of laser welded samples were analyzed. The results show that under sequential spot-welding, when the amount of spot-welding is increased, the stress peak value decreases. Compared with sequential spot welding and side-by-side spot welding, the spot-welding sequence of diagonal points first, and then side-by-side spot welding, can effectively reduce the residual stress. This research enables us to provide some guidelines in terms of studying the reliability issues of microwave devices.

Keyhole-in-keyhole formation by adding a coaxially superimposed single-mode laser beam in disk laser deep penetration welding

Laser deep penetration welding is characterized by the formation of a vapor capillary (keyhole) and a high overall absorption (coupling rate) of the laser radiation in comparison to heat conduction welding. Due to multiple reflexions within the highly dynamic keyhole, the absorption mechanisms are very complex. The questions, how a laser beam interacts with the existing keyhole, and, if shadowing effects occur, are a matter of concern for several researchers. In this study, the hypothesis that the beam of a laser source can be transmitted to a significant extent through an existing keyhole and acts predominantly at the keyhole bottom was investigated. Experiments were carried out on mild steel and technical pure aluminum, using a specially designed optical system, which allows to coaxially combine two laser beams and to adjust their settings like the energy and the focal plane individually. A combination of a disk laser with a focal diameter of 390 µm and a single-mode fiber laser with a focal diameter of 30 µm was used. Weld depths and seam shapes were analyzed in cross and longitudinal sections. Based on the results, it is shown that the much smaller focal diameter of the single-mode laser beam acted at the bottom of the keyhole and caused a kind of “keyhole-in-keyhole formation” in the form of a local maximum in weld depth whose expression depended on the focal plane of the single-mode laser beam.

Plasma Plume Thermodynamic Behavior During Laser Deep-Penetration Welding of TC4 Titanium Alloy

Plasma Plume Thermodynamic Behavior During Laser Deep-Penetration Welding of TC4 Titanium Alloy

Comparative Study on the Behavior of Keyhole in Analogy Welding and Real Deep Penetration Laser Welding.

In deep penetration laser welding, the behavior of the keyhole has an important influence on the welding quality. As it is difficult to directly observe the keyhole and detect the pressure inside the keyhole during metal laser welding, theoretical analysis and numerical simulation methods are commonly used methods in studying keyhole behavior. However, these methods cannot provide direct real information on keyhole behavior. In this paper, a method of analogy welding is proposed, in which high speed gas is used to blow the liquid to generate the keyhole. Relevant process experiments were conducted to explore keyhole behavior in analogy welding and real deep penetration laser welding. The pressure balance of the keyhole, both in analogy welding and real deep penetration laser welding, were analyzed. The laws obtained in analogy welding and real deep penetration laser welding are similar, which indicates that studying keyhole formation and the maintenance principle using the analogy welding method proposed in this paper may be helpful for deep understanding of the keyhole formation and maintenance mechanisms in real deep penetration laser welding.

Numerical Simulation of Preheating Temperature on Molten Pool Dynamics in Laser Deep-Penetration Welding

In this paper, a heat-flow coupling model of laser welding at preheating temperature was established by the FLUENT 19.0 software. The fluctuation of the keyhole wall and melt flow behavior in the molten pool under different preheating temperatures were analyzed, and the correlation between keyhole wall fluctuation and molten pool flow with spatters and bubbles was obtained. The results indicate that when the outer wall in the middle of the rear keyhole wall is convex, the inner wall is concave, which causes spatter or the bottom of the keyhole to collapse. When the metal layer in the middle of the rear keyhole wall turns into obliquely upward flow, welding spatter is generated. In contrast, the metal layer in the middle of the rear keyhole wall changes to flow into the keyhole, and the bottom of the keyhole collapses. When the preheating temperature is 300 K (ambient temperature), 400 K, and 500 K, the inner wall in the middle of the rear keyhole wall is concave. With the increase in the preheating temperature, the area of the concave gradually increases, and the size of the liquid column behind the keyhole opening gradually decreases. When the preheating temperature is 300 K, there are more spatters above the molten pool. In comparison, when the preheating temperature is 400 K or 500 K, there are less spatters, and the bottom of the keyhole collapses.